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Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation

NCERT Class 9 · Social Science Based on NCERT Class 9 Social Science textbook · Free CBSE study kit

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Chapter Notes

Overview
This chapter traces the long journey of human history from the earliest ancestors to the emergence of the first civilisations. It explains how humans evolved biologically and culturally, developed tools, adopted agriculture, and eventually built urban societies. The one big idea a student must walk away with is that the shift from hunting-gathering to farming and the invention of writing were the two most transformative revolutions that laid the foundation for all later civilisations.
Key Concepts (21)
Biological evolution
The gradual physical and genetic changes through which early ancestors (australopithecines) evolved into modern human beings (Homo sapiens).
e.g. The change in skull shape from Homo habilis to Homo sapiens shows biological evolution.
Cultural evolution
The process by which humans adapted to their surroundings by developing tools, techniques, and technology to use natural resources.
e.g. Early humans moving from using simple stone tools to making microlithic tools and later farming implements.
Hominin
A group that includes modern humans and our early human-like ancestors, also known as tool makers.
e.g. Homo erectus is a hominin that made handaxes and cleavers.
Homo erectus
An upright or bipedal human ancestor who was the first hominin to exit Africa and invented handaxes and cleavers.
e.g. Homo erectus fossils and tools have been found in Asia and Europe, showing their migration out of Africa.
Homo sapiens
Modern humans who evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and spread all over the earth, developing complex technologies.
e.g. Homo sapiens created cave paintings at Bhimbetka and used microblade tools.
Fossil
The preserved remains, traces, or impressions of plants, animals, or humans from the distant past, formed when remains get buried and turn into stone over thousands or millions of years.
e.g. Fossilised skulls of Homo habilis found in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania.
Palaeolithic period
The Old Stone Age, characterised by a hunting-gathering lifestyle and the use of simple stone tools.
e.g. Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu is a Palaeolithic site dating to about 1.5–1.7 million years ago.
Mesolithic period
A transitional phase between hunting-gathering and agriculture, marked by the use of microlithic (tiny stone) tools and a warmer climate.
e.g. Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh show Mesolithic cave paintings and microlithic tools.
Neolithic revolution
The gradual shift from hunting-gathering to a food-producing way of life, involving domestication of plants and animals and the establishment of village settlements.
e.g. Mehrgarh in Pakistan is the oldest Neolithic site in the Indian subcontinent, dating to about 7000 BCE.
Chalcolithic period
The Copper and Stone Age, when copper was used along with stone tools, marking early metallurgy.
e.g. The people of Mehrgarh began making copper objects by about 4000 BCE, entering the Chalcolithic period.
Bronze Age
A period characterised by the development of bronze metallurgy (mixing copper and tin), expansion of trade, towns, and early civilisations.
e.g. The Sindhu–Sarasvatī (Harappan) civilisation flourished during the Bronze Age around 2600 BCE.
Cuneiform
One of the earliest systems of writing developed by the Sumerians, written by pressing a wedge-shaped stylus into soft clay tablets.
e.g. Cuneiform tablets record farming activities, trade, and law codes like the Code of Hammurabi.
Ziggurat
A tower-like stepped pyramid-shaped temple in Mesopotamian cities, with the main temple at the top, also serving as the city's treasury.
e.g. The ziggurat at Ur was built for the chief god and was the centre of economic and religious life.
Papyrus
A writing material made by cutting the inner trunk of the papyrus plant into strips, criss-crossing, pressing, drying, and polishing them into sheets, used in ancient Egypt.
e.g. The Papyrus Ebers lists more than 700 cures and spells of Egyptian medicine.
Mummification
The process of preserving a body after death by removing internal organs, drying it with natron, oiling, wrapping in linen strips, and placing it in a coffin with rituals.
e.g. Egyptians mummified their pharaohs because they believed the ka (spiritual double) lived on if the body was preserved.
City-state
A sovereign state centred around a city that rules the surrounding territories.
e.g. Ur, Uruk, and Lagash were Sumerian city-states in Mesopotamia.
Old World
The geographical area of the oldest human settlements of the earliest Palaeolithic period, including Africa, Asia, and Europe.
e.g. The earliest human settlements were found in the Old World — Africa, Asia, and Europe.
Extra-corporal limbs
Tools created by early humans that functioned as extensions of the human body, helping them perform tasks they could not accomplish with their hands alone.
e.g. Handaxes and cleavers are examples of extra-corporal limbs used for chopping meat and digging tubers.
Microlithic tools
Tiny stone tools used during the Mesolithic period, often fixed in a handle for ease of use.
e.g. Microlithic tools were used for fishing and hunting small game animals.
Code of Hammurabi
A compilation of rules and regulations for civil and social conduct compiled by King Hammurabi of Babylonia, serving as a foundational model for many future legal systems.
e.g. The Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a stone stele in cuneiform and included laws about trade, family, and crime.
Silk Route
The trade route along which silk was traded from China to other regions, especially during the Han dynasty.
e.g. The Silk Route connected China with India and Central Asia, facilitating trade of silk, spices, and ideas.
How It Works
Human biological evolution from australopithecines to Homo sapiens
  1. Step 1: Australopithecines (southern primates) were the earliest ancestors, living in Africa.
  2. Step 2: Homo habilis (handy man) appeared around 2.6 million years ago, making the earliest stone tools in Olduvai Gorge.
  3. Step 3: Homo erectus evolved, invented handaxes and cleavers, and was the first hominin to migrate out of Africa around 2 million years ago.
  4. Step 4: Homo neanderthalensis lived in Europe and Southwest Asia, making Middle Palaeolithic flake tools.
  5. Step 5: Homo sapiens (modern humans) evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and spread across the world, developing complex technologies.
💡 Students often confuse the order — remember: habilis → erectus → neanderthalensis → sapiens. Also, Homo erectus was the first to leave Africa, not Homo sapiens.
Archaeological reconstruction of early human life
  1. Step 1: Archaeologists excavate early human sites to uncover tools, bones, and other objects left behind.
  2. Step 2: They experiment by making and using similar tools to understand how early humans created and used them.
  3. Step 3: Discarded tools and fossils buried in layers of earth are discovered and analysed.
  4. Step 4: These findings help reconstruct how people lived, what they ate, and how they adapted to their environment.
💡 Archaeology is the main source for the period before writing. Students must remember that experimental archaeology (making and using tools) is a key method.
Transition from hunting-gathering to agriculture (Neolithic Revolution)
  1. Step 1: Hunter-gatherers gained familiarity with seasons and food resources over thousands of years.
  2. Step 2: Around 12,000 years ago, climate became warmer, leading to expansion of forests and grasslands.
  3. Step 3: People began to domesticate select animals and plants, bringing them under human control.
  4. Step 4: They developed new breeds through cultivation and husbandry, and made tools for food production and processing.
  5. Step 5: They established the first village settlements, laying foundations for urban revolution.
💡 The shift to farming is called a 'revolution' because it was a fundamental change in lifestyle, not just a simple change. It happened at different times in different regions.
Development of writing in early civilisations
  1. Step 1: The Sumerians developed cuneiform around 3300 BCE, using wedge-shaped reeds on clay tablets.
  2. Step 2: The Egyptians developed hieroglyphic script, written on papyrus and stone.
  3. Step 3: The Harappans used a pictographic script (Sindhu lipi) on seals and pottery, but it remains undeciphered.
  4. Step 4: The Chinese used oracle bone script, with symbols carved on animal bones and tortoise shells.
  5. Step 5: Writing enabled recording of economic transactions, laws, myths, and history, marking the beginning of the historical period.
💡 Cuneiform and hieroglyphics have been deciphered; the Harappan script has NOT been deciphered. This is a common exam point.
Emergence of the Sindhu–Sarasvatī (Harappan) Civilisation
  1. Step 1: Neolithic settlement at Mehrgarh (7000 BCE) with wheat, barley, sheep, goats, and cattle.
  2. Step 2: By 4000 BCE, copper working began (Chalcolithic period) at Mehrgarh and other sites.
  3. Step 3: Early Harappan phase (4500–2600 BCE) saw regional pottery styles, bead production, and use of seals and graffiti.
  4. Step 4: Mature Harappan phase (2600–1900 BCE) featured urban centres, standard weights, planned cities, and the script.
  5. Step 5: Late Harappan phase (1900–1300 BCE) saw decline due to environmental and economic factors.
💡 Mehrgarh is the oldest Neolithic site in the subcontinent. The Harappan script is also called Sindhu lipi and is undeciphered.
Egyptian mummification process
  1. Step 1: Internal organs (except the heart) were removed from the dead body.
  2. Step 2: The body was dried using natron (a natural salt).
  3. Step 3: The body was oiled and wrapped in linen strips.
  4. Step 4: The wrapped body was placed in a coffin and buried with rituals.
💡 The heart was left inside because Egyptians believed it was the seat of the soul. Mummification was done to preserve the body for the afterlife.
Exam Traps — Don't Make These Mistakes
⚠ Confusing Homo erectus and Homo sapiens migration
✗ Homo sapiens were the first to leave Africa.
→ The chapter clearly states that Homo erectus was the first hominin to exit Africa around 2 million years ago. Homo sapiens left Africa much later, around 125,000 years ago.
✓ Homo erectus was the first hominin to migrate out of Africa, around 2 million years ago. Homo sapiens, modern humans, left Africa in a later wave around 125,000 years ago.
⚠ Mistaking the Harappan script as deciphered
✗ The Harappan script has been deciphered and we know what it says.
→ The chapter explicitly states that the Harappan script (Sindhu lipi) has not yet been deciphered, unlike cuneiform and hieroglyphics.
✓ The Harappan script is a pictographic script found on seals and pottery, but it has not yet been deciphered. In contrast, the cuneiform script of Mesopotamia and the hieroglyphic script of Egypt have been deciphered.
⚠ Calling the Neolithic shift a 'simple change'
✗ The Neolithic period was just a change from hunting to farming.
→ The chapter calls it a 'revolution' because it involved a fundamental transformation in lifestyle, including domestication of plants and animals, settled villages, new tools, and pottery. It was not a simple or overnight change.
✓ The shift to farming during the Neolithic period is called a revolution because it was a gradual but profound transformation from a nomadic hunting-gathering lifestyle to settled agriculture, domestication, and village life, laying the foundation for civilisation.
⚠ Confusing the order of Stone Age periods
✗ The Mesolithic period came before the Palaeolithic period.
→ The correct chronological order is Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) → Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) → Neolithic (New Stone Age). The Mesolithic is a transitional phase between Palaeolithic and Neolithic.
✓ The Stone Age is divided into three stages in order: Palaeolithic (oldest), Mesolithic (transitional), and Neolithic (most recent).
⚠ Attributing the invention of the wheel to the Egyptians
✗ The Egyptians invented the wheeled cart.
→ The chapter states that the Sumerians invented the wheeled cart and sailboat, not the Egyptians.
✓ The Sumerians of Mesopotamia invented the wheeled cart and sailboat. They also developed a number system based on 60, which gave us the 60-minute hour and 360-degree circle.
Compare & Contrast
Lifestyle and technology
Palaeolithic period
Neolithic period
Palaeolithic people were hunter-gatherers using simple stone tools like handaxes and cleavers, while Neolithic people were farmers who domesticated plants and animals, used polished stone tools, and lived in permanent village settlements.
Decipherment status
Cuneiform script
Harappan script
Cuneiform, used by the Sumerians, has been deciphered and provides detailed information about Mesopotamian life, whereas the Harappan script (Sindhu lipi) has not yet been deciphered, limiting our understanding of the Harappan civilisation.
Writing material
Mesopotamian civilisation
Egyptian civilisation
Mesopotamians wrote cuneiform on clay tablets using wedge-shaped reeds, while Egyptians wrote hieroglyphics on papyrus (made from papyrus plant) and stone monuments.
Exam Focus
Marks pattern: 2 MCQs (1 mark each), 1 Short Answer (3 marks) on human evolution or Neolithic Revolution, 1 Long Answer (5 marks) on features of a Bronze Age civilisation or comparison of civilisations.
Most asked: Stages of human evolution (Homo habilis, erectus, sapiens) · Neolithic Revolution and its significance · Features of the Sindhu–Sarasvatī (Harappan) Civilisation · Comparison of early writing systems (cuneiform, hieroglyphics, Harappan script) · Importance of rivers in the growth of early civilisations
Don't skip: Describe the process of human biological and cultural evolution.; Explain why the Neolithic period is called a revolution.; Compare the Harappan, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian civilisations in terms of writing, trade, and urban planning.
Safe to skip: Details of specific Assyrian and Babylonian rulers (e.g., Sargon, Hammurabi's exact dates) are low-weightage. Focus on their contributions (e.g., Code of Hammurabi) rather than names and dates.
One-Line Revision (read aloud before the exam)
  1. Biological evolution refers to physical changes from australopithecines to Homo sapiens, while cultural evolution refers to the development of tools and technology.
  2. Homo erectus was the first hominin to migrate out of Africa around 2 million years ago.
  3. Homo sapiens evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and spread across the world.
  4. The Palaeolithic period is the Old Stone Age, characterised by hunting-gathering and simple stone tools.
  5. The Mesolithic period is a transitional phase with microlithic tools and a warmer climate.
  6. The Neolithic Revolution was the shift from hunting-gathering to agriculture and settled village life.
  7. Mehrgarh in Pakistan is the oldest Neolithic site in the Indian subcontinent, dating to about 7000 BCE.
  8. The Harappan script (Sindhu lipi) is pictographic and has not yet been deciphered.
  9. Cuneiform was the writing system of the Sumerians, written on clay tablets with wedge-shaped reeds.
  10. The Code of Hammurabi was a set of laws compiled by the Babylonian king Hammurabi.
  11. Egyptian civilisation developed along the Nile River, and its writing was hieroglyphic on papyrus.
  12. The Chinese civilisation flourished along the Huang He and Yangtze rivers, with oracle bone script.
  13. The Silk Route was a major trade route for Chinese silk, especially during the Han dynasty.
  14. The Great Wall of China was built over centuries to protect against nomadic raids.
  15. Rivers were important for early civilisations because they provided water for irrigation, fertile soil, and transport.

MCQs — 10 Questions with Answers

Q1. Which term refers to gradual physical and genetic changes in early human ancestors?

  • A. Biological evolution ✓
  • B. Cultural evolution
  • C. Adaptation
  • D. Migration

Answer: A — Biological evolution specifically describes the physical and genetic transformation of ancestors into Homo sapiens, as clearly stated in the chapter.

Q2. Homo erectus was significant because it was:

  • A. The first hominin to make stone tools
  • B. The first human ancestor to leave Africa with tools like hand axes ✓
  • C. The only ancestor to use fire
  • D. The ancestor that invented writing

Answer: B — Homo erectus was the first hominin to exit Africa around 2 million years ago, carrying stone tools such as hand axes and cleavers to other continents.

Q3. What percentage of human history occurs before the invention of writing?

  • A. Approximately 50 per cent
  • B. Approximately 75 per cent
  • C. More than 99 per cent ✓
  • D. Less than 50 per cent

Answer: C — The chapter explicitly states that more than 99 per cent of human history falls under the period before writing (from 3 million to 5000 years ago).

Q4. Which of the following is NOT a reason why archaeologists study artefacts?

  • A. To understand how early humans created and used tools
  • B. To learn about the daily lives and survival strategies of ancient people
  • C. To determine the exact names and personal thoughts of individual early humans ✓
  • D. To reconstruct the ways of living of prehistoric societies

Answer: C — The chapter states it is generally difficult to understand the thoughts and ideas of people from artefacts alone; artefacts cannot reveal exact individual names or personal thoughts.

Q5. The Harappan script remains undeciphered, unlike cuneiform and hieroglyphics, because:

  • A. It used only simple symbols that cannot be decoded
  • B. No physical evidence of this script has been found yet
  • C. It has not yet been successfully decoded despite being a pictographic system ✓
  • D. Scholars have not attempted to decipher it

Answer: C — The chapter states the Harappan script is pictographic and found on seals and pottery, but unlike cuneiform and hieroglyphics, it has not yet been successfully deciphered.

Q6. Dr. Sharma observes that early humans transitioned from hunting-gathering to agriculture. Which concept best explains this change?

  • A. Biological evolution
  • B. Cultural evolution and adaptation to environmental conditions ✓
  • C. Migration patterns out of Africa
  • D. The invention of writing systems

Answer: B — This transition demonstrates cultural evolution—humans adapted to their surroundings by developing new techniques (agriculture) to survive changing climatic and environmental conditions.

Q7. The earliest stone tools discovered were made approximately:

  • A. 2 million years ago
  • B. 1 million years ago
  • C. 3.3 million years ago ✓
  • D. 500,000 years ago

Answer: C — The chapter explicitly states that around 3.3 million years ago, one of the early human ancestors made the earliest known stone tools, marking the beginning of human behaviour.

Q8. Tools are called extra-corporal limbs because they:

  • A. Were made from animal body parts
  • B. Functioned as extensions of the human body helping perform tasks hands alone could not do ✓
  • C. Were attached directly to human bones
  • D. Replaced the use of human arms completely

Answer: B — The chapter defines extra-corporal limbs as tools that functioned as extensions of the human body, enabling people to perform tasks impossible with hands alone.

Q9. An archaeologist finds stone hand axes in both Africa and Europe. This discovery most likely indicates:

  • A. Europeans invented stone tools independently without African influence
  • B. Stone tools were developed separately in different regions
  • C. Homo erectus migrated from Africa carrying tool-making technology between 2 and 0.5 million years ago ✓
  • D. Writing systems spread from Africa to Europe during this period

Answer: C — The chapter states that stone hand axes and cleavers found in Asia and Europe indicate Homo erectus dispersal from Africa between 2 and 0.5 million years ago.

Q10. Which statement best explains why written records provide more accurate dating than artefacts alone?

  • A. Written documents are always physically older than artefacts
  • B. Written documents mention specific dates of events such as coronations and wars, making dating relatively accurate ✓
  • C. Artefacts cannot be tested for their age scientifically
  • D. Writing was invented before tools were created

Answer: B — The chapter contrasts pre-writing (approximate dating) with post-writing periods (accurate dating) because written documents explicitly mention specific dates of historical events.

Flashcards

What does biological evolution mean?

Biological evolution is the gradual physical and genetic changes through which early ancestors evolved into modern humans called Homo sapiens.

Define cultural evolution.

Cultural evolution explains how humans adapted to changing climates and environments by developing tools, techniques, and technology to survive.

Who were the australopithecines?

Australopithecines were early human-like ancestors whose name means southern primates, representing a stage in human biological evolution.

What is Homo erectus?

Homo erectus was an upright, bipedal human ancestor who used stone tools like hand axes and was the first hominin to leave Africa around 2 million years ago.

What percentage of human history has written records?

Less than 1 per cent of human history has written records, covering only the last 5000 years since writing was invented.

What is the Harappan script?

The Harappan script, also called Sindhu lipi, is a pictographic writing system found on seals and pottery that has not yet been successfully deciphered.

When did Homo sapiens evolve in Africa?

Homo sapiens, or modern humans, evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and later migrated to other regions.

What role did surplus food play in civilisation?

The ability to produce surplus food and material goods provided the foundation for the emergence of civilisation.

What are artefacts in archaeology?

Artefacts are tools, implements, and other material objects made by humans that serve as major sources for understanding early human life.

How did tools function in early human life?

Tools functioned as extra-corporal limbs or extensions of the human body, helping people perform tasks they could not accomplish with hands alone.

Important Board Questions

Define biological evolution and explain why it is important to study early human history. [2 marks]

State that biological evolution is gradual physical and genetic change of ancestors to Homo sapiens. Then explain that studying it helps us understand human adaptation to climate and environmental changes over millions of years.

Why is the Harappan script considered undeciphered, while cuneiform and hieroglyphic scripts have been successfully decoded? What does this tell us about sources of historical knowledge? [3 marks]

Explain that Harappan script is pictographic but not yet decoded despite being found on seals and pottery. Compare with cuneiform and hieroglyphics which are deciphered and mark the beginning of history. Conclude that without deciphered writing, we rely only on artefacts and cannot understand thoughts, ideas, or specific historical events.

How did the development of agriculture and the production of surplus food transform early human societies? Explain the connection between this change and the emergence of civilisation. Support your answer with evidence from the chapter. [5 marks]

Begin by explaining cultural evolution—how humans adapted to environments through tools and techniques. Show the progression from hunting-gathering to agriculture as a major cultural adaptation. Explain that surplus food production allowed some people to specialise in non-farming activities, leading to social organisation, trade, and ultimately civilisation. Reference the chapter's statement that surplus food and material goods laid the foundation for civilisation.

Assertion-Reason Questions for Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation

Q1. Assertion (A):

Early humans are called 'hominins' because they possessed the cognitive ability to create and use stone tools.

Reason (R):

Stone tools functioned as extra-corporal limbs, extending human physical capabilities to accomplish tasks that could not be done with hands alone.

Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A — Both statements are true and directly related. The ability to make tools (requiring cognition) is the defining characteristic of hominins, and tools served as extensions of their bodies. The reason correctly explains why tool-making was significant to early human identity.

Q2. Assertion (A):

The Harappan script, found on seals and pottery, has been deciphered and provides detailed information about Harappan social and political life.

Reason (R):

Unlike cuneiform and hieroglyphic scripts, the Harappan script used a pictographic writing system.

Answer: D — A is false but R is true — Both statements are false. The Harappan script has NOT been deciphered, so it cannot provide information about Harappan society. The reason suggesting pictographic systems prevented decipherment is also incorrect since cuneiform and hieroglyphics (which were deciphered) were also ancient scripts.

Q3. Assertion (A):

More than 99 percent of human history occurred before the invention of writing approximately 5,000 years ago.

Reason (R):

Before the invention of writing, humans lived through both biological and cultural evolution spanning millions of years.

Answer: B — Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A — Both statements are true. The pre-writing period lasted from about 3 million years ago to 5,000 years ago (more than 99% of human history). However, the reason, while true, is not the explanation for why the pre-writing period lasted so long—the explanation lies in the timeframe itself.

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Case-Based Questions (CBQ) for Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation

Case Study:

An archaeological team excavating a site in East Africa discovered multiple layers of stone tools dated between 1.8 million and 0.7 million years ago. The lowest layers contained hand axes, while middle layers showed more refined hand axes and cleavers. Upper layers contained even more sophisticated tools with sharper edges and better symmetry. The team also found animal bones with cut marks near the tools. Scientists compared these tools with identical ones discovered in Asia and Europe from similar time periods.

Q1. What does the progression of stone tools from lower to upper layers suggest about early human development?

  • A. Early humans forgot how to make tools over time
  • B. Tool-making skills improved over time as humans learned and refined techniques ✓
  • C. Different species of humans used different tools at the same time
  • D. Humans did not value tool-making in early periods

Answer: B

Q2. Why would animal bones with cut marks near stone tools be significant to archaeologists?

  • A. It proves that early humans fought with animals
  • B. It indicates that early humans hunted animals and used tools to process meat ✓
  • C. It shows that animals deliberately sharpened rocks
  • D. It demonstrates that animals were more intelligent than humans

Answer: B

Q3. What can archaeologists conclude about human migration patterns from discovering identical tools across Africa, Asia, and Europe?

  • A. Humans independently invented the same tools in different regions
  • B. Ancient people traded tools between continents regularly
  • C. Homo erectus originated in Africa and dispersed to other continents during this period ✓
  • D. Different species of humans existed in each continent with similar abilities

Answer: C

Q4. Why can the archaeologists only provide 'approximate' dates rather than exact dates for these tool layers?

  • A. They did not have access to modern dating technology
  • B. Written records from this period provide conflicting information
  • C. Archaeological dating methods for artefacts provide approximate timeframes without written documents to verify exact dates ✓
  • D. Ancient civilisations deliberately hid the true dates of these tools

Answer: C

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