New Beginnings: Cities and States

CHAPTER 4: NEW BEGINNINGS - CITIES AND STATES

OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER

This chapter covers the development of organized states and urban centres in ancient India during the 1st millennium BCE. It explains how after the decline of the Harappan Civilization, a new phase of urbanization called the "Second Urbanisation" emerged in the Ganga plains and spread throughout India. The chapter also covers important political systems, technological innovations, social organization through the varṇa-jāti system, and the early democratic traditions that developed in ancient India.

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THE FIRST AND SECOND URBANISATION

First Urbanisation

**Time Period**: Early 2nd millennium BCE (around and after 2000 BCE)

**Civilization**: The Indus/Harappan/Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilization

**What it had**: Elaborate structures (both private and public), crowded streets, busy markets, communities with specialized occupations (metalsmiths, potters, builders, weavers, craftspeople), a writing system, sanitation system, administration, and a state structure with a ruling class

**What happened**: The civilization disintegrated. Some cities were abandoned. In others, people continued living but reverted to rural or village lifestyle

**Duration of no urban life**: For about 1000 years (a whole millennium), urban life was largely absent from India, though a few towns may have existed in north India

Second Urbanisation

**Time Period**: 1st millennium BCE (starting around 1000 BCE and continuing to today)

**Location**: Began in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus (Sindhu) basin and neighbouring regions, then gradually spread to other parts of the Subcontinent

**Why we know about it**:

Archaeological excavations confirmed the existence of ancient urban centres

Ancient literature (late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain texts) contains many references to these urban centres

**Characteristics**: A vibrant new phase of urbanization with organized states and cities

**Importance**: This urbanization has continued from the 1st millennium BCE right up to today

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JANAPADAS AND MAHĀJANAPADAS

What are Janapadas?

**Meaning of Janapada**: A Sanskrit word meaning "where the people (jana) have set foot (pada)" - that is, where people have settled down

**When they formed**: Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE

**How they formed**: As people formed clans or groups (probably sharing a common language and customs), each clan became associated with a territory

**Who led them**: Each janapada was led by a **rājā** (ruler)

**How they developed**: Janapadas grew as trade networks expanded and connected them with each other

What are Mahājanapadas?

**When they emerged**: By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE

**How they formed**: Some of the early janapadas merged together to form bigger units

**Number**: Ancient texts mention different numbers, but the most frequent list gives **16 mahājanapadas**

**Geographic spread**: Extended from **Gandhāra in the northwest** to **Anga in the east** and to **Aśhmaka in central India** (near the Godavari River)

**Important feature**: Many smaller janapadas also continued to exist independently alongside the mahājanapadas

Location and Geography of Mahājanapadas

**Concentration**: Many mahājanapadas were concentrated in the Ganga plains

**Reasons for concentration in Ganga plains**:

Growth of agriculture due to the fertile nature of the Ganga plains

Availability of iron ore in the mountains and hills

Formation of new trade networks

The 16 Mahājanapadas (with Capitals)

1. **Magadha** - Capital: Rājagṛiha (modern-day Rajgir, Bihar)

2. **Anga** - Capital: Champā

3. **Kosala** - Capital: Śhrāvastī (in modern-day Uttar Pradesh)

4. **Vatsa** - Capital: Kauśhāmbī (near modern Prayagraj)

5. **Avanti** - Capital: Ujjayinī (in modern-day Madhya Pradesh)

6. **Vṛijji** (also called Vajji) - Capital: Vaiśhālī

7. **Malla** - Capital: Kushīnāra

8. **Chedi** - Capital: Tripuri

9. **Aśhmaka** - Capital: (in central India near Godavari River)

10. **Gāndhāra** - Capitals: Takṣhaśhilā and Pushkalavati (in northwest)

11. **Kamboja** - (northwest region)

12. **Kuru** - (northern region)

13. **Matsya** - Capital: Virāṭa

14. **Śhūrasena** - Capital: Mathurā

15. **Pāñchāla** - Capital: Ahichchhatra and Indraprastha (modern Delhi)

Most Powerful Mahājanapadas

The four most powerful were:

1. **Magadha** (in part of today's Bihar)

2. **Kosala** (in part of today's Uttar Pradesh)

3. **Vatsa** (capital: Kauśhāmbī)

4. **Avanti** (in part of today's Madhya Pradesh)

Characteristics of Mahājanapada Capitals

Most were fairly large and well-fortified cities

**Moat**: A deep, wide ditch surrounding the fort or fortified city, filled with water, provided defense

Gateways through rampart walls were deliberately kept narrow so guards could control movement of people and goods entering or leaving

Most of these ancient capitals continue to be living cities today - "modern" cities that are often 2,500 years old

Example: Kauśhāmbī, Śhiśhupalgarh, Ujjayinī continue as cities today

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EARLY DEMOCRATIC TRADITIONS IN JANAPADAS AND MAHĀJANAPADAS

Assembly Systems in Janapadas

**Names of Assembly**: Called **sabhā** or **samiti**

**Purpose**: Discussion of matters concerning the clan

**Members**: Mostly elders in the clan (we can assume this)

**Ancient origins**: The words sabhā and samiti first appear in the Vedas, India's most ancient texts

**Ruler's authority**: The rājā was NOT expected to rule independently or arbitrarily

**How good rulers functioned**: A good ruler was supposed to take advice from assemblies, apart from ministers and administrators

**What some texts say**: According to some texts, an incompetent ruler could be removed by the assembly

**Important note**: While such mentions in texts are significant, it doesn't mean this was an established law for all janapadas; we have incomplete data for such remote periods

Political Systems of Mahājanapadas

The mahājanapadas expanded the basic principles of janapadas and developed different governance systems:

#### Monarchies (Most Common)

**Type**: Monarch-ruled states where the rājā was the ultimate authority

**Support system**: Supported by ministers and an assembly of elders

**Succession**: Position was hereditary - the rājā would usually be the son of the previous one

**Duties of king**:

Collect taxes or revenue

Maintain law and order

Get impressive fortifications built around the capital

Maintain an army to defend territory or wage war with neighbouring states

**Examples**: Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti were among the most powerful monarchies

#### Democratic/Republican Systems (Less Common)

**Mahājanapadas with this system**: Vajji (or Vṛijji) and the neighbouring Malla

**Names**: Called **gaṇas** or **sanghas**

**How power was distributed**: The sabhā or samiti had more power and took important decisions through discussion, and if necessary, through vote

**Selection of ruler**: Importantly, the selection of the rājā was also done by the assembly through voting!

**Nature**: NOT monarchies but truly democratic in functioning

**Historical significance**: One of the earliest democratic or republican systems in the world

**Scholar classification**: Often called "early republics"

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MAJOR INNOVATIONS DURING THE JANAPADA AND MAHĀJANAPADA PERIOD

Age of Profound Change

The period of janapadas and mahājanapadas was an age of profound change that would impact Indian civilization until present times.

Intellectual and Cultural Developments

**New schools of thought**: Emergence of late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain schools of thought (studied in detail in Grade 6 chapter "India's Cultural Roots")

**Dissemination of teachings**: These schools spread their teachings and literature through:

Scholars travelling across India

Monks and nuns travelling across India

People undertaking pilgrimages

**Art renewal**: Indian art underwent a renewal that would blossom in the age of empires

Iron Metallurgy (Major Technological Innovation)

**What it replaced**: The Harappan civilization had mastered copper and bronze metallurgy; now iron replaced these

**Early development**: Techniques of extracting and shaping iron were perfected from the early 2nd millennium BCE

**Widespread adoption**: It took a few centuries for iron to become part of daily life

**By the late 2nd millennium BCE**: Iron tools had become widespread

**Impact on agriculture**: Iron tools facilitated agriculture on a much bigger scale than before

**Military advantage**: Iron made better weapons than bronze:

Lighter and sharper

Better swords, spears, arrows, shields

**Evidence of warfare**: Some evidence exists of warfare between neighbouring mahājanapadas

**Result**: Such military campaigns, and occasionally alliances, gave rise to new kingdoms and empires

First Use of Coins in India

**Why coins were needed**: Made necessary by growing trade

**First coins**: Made of **silver, a soft metal** into which symbols could be "punched"

**Name**: Called **"punch-marked coins"**

**Later development**: Coins of copper, gold, and other metals were also made

**Circulation**: Coins were exchanged across different regions and even with other parts of the world

**Issued by**: Generally, each mahājanapada issued its own coins, but coins from neighbouring regions were also used and exchanged in trade

**Example image in text**: Fig. 4.6 shows punch-marked coins from various ancient cities of north India

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THE VARṆA-JĀTI SYSTEM

Why Societies Divide Into Groups

**What happens in complex societies**: As societies grow more complex with the rise of civilization, they organize themselves into several groups

**Basis of division**: Division is based on class, occupation, or some other criteria

**Types of groups**: Groups concerned with governance, administration, religion, education, trade, town-planning, farming, crafts, arts, and all kinds of other professions

**Ideal outcome**: All groups would complement each other and work in harmony

**Reality**: These divisions also lead to inequalities; some groups acquire more wealth, power or influence than others

The Two-Fold System: Varṇa and Jāti

India's society was organized through a two-fold system consisting of **jāti** and **varṇa**.

Jāti (Community/Caste Based on Occupation)

**Meaning**: A group or community of people with a specific professional occupation

**Connection to livelihood**: Closely tied to their livelihood

**Skills transmission**: The skills that defined a particular jāti were generally transmitted from generation to generation

**Examples of jātis**: Agricultural groups, metalworkers/metallurgists, merchants/traders, craftspeople

**Subdivisions**: Often a jāti would get further subdivided into **sub-jātis**

**Sub-jāti characteristics**: Each developed customs and traditions of its own concerning:

Marriage

Rituals

Food habits

Varṇa (Category from Vedic Texts)

**Origin**: Concept that emerged from Vedic texts

**Number of varṇas**: Four main varṇas

**The Four Varṇas**:

1. **Brahmins**:

Engaged in preserving and spreading knowledge

Performed rituals

2. **Kshatriyas**:

Expected to defend society and the land

Engaged in warfare if necessary

Rulers and warriors

3. **Vaishyas**:

Supposed to increase society's wealth through:

Trade

Business

Agriculture

4. **Shudras**:

Artisans

Craftspeople

Workers

Servants

Understanding "Caste"

**English word "caste"**: Comes from Portuguese word "casta"

**Origin of English term**: Portuguese travellers to India in the 16th century CE used this term to describe Indian society

**Scholarly interpretation**:

Some scholars consider "caste" to refer to varṇas

Most scholars take "caste" to apply to jātis

Yet others consider "caste" to refer to the whole varṇa-jāti system combined

Early Flexibility of the Varṇa-Jāti System

**Historical evidence**: Both in texts and inscriptions, there is evidence that in the early period individuals and communities changed their professional occupations if circumstances demanded

**Examples of flexibility**:

A long drought or natural calamity could force a community of farmers to migrate to a city and take up other occupations

Some Brahmins would turn to trade or even military activities

Occupational mobility existed

**Stability function**: This complex system structured Indian society, organized its activities (including economic ones), and gave it some stability

Later Rigidity of the Varṇa-Jāti System

**Historical progression**: The system became rigid with the passage of time

**When it became more rigid**: Particularly during the British rule in India

**Negative consequences**:

Led to inequalities and discrimination towards the lower jātis

Led to discrimination against some communities excluded from the varṇa-jāti system entirely

Important Notes on the Varṇa-Jāti System

**Depth of study**: The system has had a deep impact on Indian society, and generations of scholars have studied its countless aspects

**Broad scholarly agreement**: The system was significantly different (more flexible, in particular) in earlier periods and became more rigid with time

**Not the only system**: While varṇa-jāti has been an important mechanism in Indian society, it is not the only one

**Other mechanisms**: There have been many other mechanisms at work in Indian society (will be explored later, especially in the theme "Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions")

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DEVELOPMENTS ELSEWHERE IN INDIA

Trade Routes in the 1st Millennium BCE

Important communication routes opened up for:

Trade

Pilgrimage

Military campaigns

Cultural exchange

Two Main Trade Routes

1. **Uttarapatha** (Northern Route):

Connected northwest regions to the Ganga plains

Extended all the way to eastern India

Major trade corridor for north-south and east-west exchange

2. **Dakṣhiṇapatha** (Southern Route):

Started from Kauśhāmbī (near Prayagraj), then a capital of one of the mahājanapadas

Crossed the Vindhya Range of hills

Proceeded all the way south

Connected northern and southern regions

Eastern India Development

**Major cities emerged**: Śhiśhupalgarh (today Sisupalgarh, part of Bhubaneswar, first excavated in 1948)

**Function**: Capital of the Kalinga region

**Urban planning**: Followed a strict square ground plan

**Features**:

Imposing fortifications

Broad streets

Gateways with narrow passages for control

Moat running outside fortifications

Southern India Development

**When cities began emerging**: From about 400 BCE onwards

**Earlier evidence**: Recent excavations claim to find signs of commercial activities going further back

**Three kingdoms emerged**:

1. **Cholas**

2. **Cheras**

3. **Pānḍyas**

**Historical sources**: The most ancient Tamil literature mentions these kingdoms and several of their kings

**Resources**: The southern regions were rich in:

Precious and semiprecious stones

Gold

Spices

**Trade**: They profitably traded not only with the rest of India but also with kingdoms and empires overseas

Interconnected Subcontinent

**By 300 or 200 BCE**: Almost the entire Subcontinent, including regions in the Northeast, was one vibrant interconnected land

**Movement of people and goods**: Goods and culture travelled from region to region, and often beyond India to parts of Central and Southeast Asia

**Example**: Kodumanal (near Erode, Tamil Nadu) shows evidence of shell and gemstones industries

End of Mahājanapadas

**When**: By 300 or 200 BCE

**What happened**: The mahājanapadas ceased to exist

**What emerged**: New developments that were going to reshape India (details in subsequent chapters)

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TIMELINE OF MAJOR PERIODS

Based on Fig. 4.8 in the chapter:

**1900 BCE**: Beginning of later period shown

**1900-1200 BCE**: Harappan Civilization flourishes and then declines

**1200-800 BCE**: Period with limited urbanization (the gap period)

**800-400 BCE**: Janapadas period

**400 BCE onwards**: Mahājanapadas period and Second Urbanisation

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IMPORTANT CONCEPTS AND TERMS

**Moat**

A deep, wide ditch surrounding a fort or fortified city and filled with water, serving as a defense mechanism.

**Rājā/Raja**

A ruler or king who led a janapada or mahājanapada. Usually hereditary position but in some cases selected by assemblies.

**Sabhā/Samiti**

Assembly or council where matters concerning the clan were discussed. Members were typically elders in the clan.

**Gaṇa/Sangha**

Terms used for democratic or republican-style mahājanapadas like Vajji and Malla where the assembly had more power.

**Varṇa**

A category from Vedic texts dividing society into four groups: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, based primarily on occupation and social role.

**Jāti**

A group or community of people with a specific professional occupation, with skills transmitted from generation to generation. Often subdivided into sub-jātis with distinct customs.

**Punch-marked coins**

The first coins used in India, made of silver with symbols "punched" into them. Later coins were made of copper, gold, and other metals.

**Second Urbanisation**

The vibrant new phase of urbanization that began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and spread throughout the Subcontinent, continuing to the present day.

**Iron Metallurgy**

The technology of extracting and shaping iron, which became widespread and facilitated large-scale agriculture and better weapons.

**Uttarapatha**

The northern trade route connecting the northwest to the Ganga plains and eastern India.

**Dakṣhiṇapatha**

The southern trade route starting from Kauśhāmbī and crossing the Vindhya Range to proceed south.

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KEY FACTS TO REMEMBER

1. The Harappan civilization declined around 2000 BCE, leading to a gap of about 1000 years in urban development in most of India.

2. The Second Urbanisation began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and spread throughout the Subcontinent.

3. Janapadas were small states formed by clans led by a rājā and advised by an assembly of elders.

4. By the 8th-7th century BCE, janapadas merged to form 16 major mahājanapadas.

5. Most mahājanapadas were monarchies, but Vajji and Malla had democratic/republican systems where the assembly selected the ruler.

6. Iron tools became widespread by the late 2nd millennium BCE, enabling large-scale agriculture.

7. Punch-marked coins were the first coins used in India, made necessary by growing trade.

8. The varṇa-jāti system organized Indian society into occupational and social groups - varṇas (4 broad categories) and jātis (specific occupational communities).

9. The varṇa-jāti system was more flexible in early periods but became rigid over time.

10. Two major trade routes - Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha - connected different regions and facilitated exchange of goods and culture.

11. By 300-200 BCE, the entire Subcontinent was interconnected through trade routes and cultural exchanges.

12. The mahājanapadas ceased to exist by 300-200 BCE, making way for new kingdoms and empires.

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IMPORTANT LOCATIONS AND MODERN EQUIVALENTS

| Ancient Name | Modern Location |

|--------------|-----------------|

| Magadha | Part of modern Bihar |

| Kosala | Part of modern Uttar Pradesh |

| Avanti | Part of modern Madhya Pradesh |

| Vatsa | Modern area around Prayagraj region |

| Rājagṛiha | Modern Rajgir, Bihar |

| Kauśhāmbī | Near modern Prayagraj |

| Ujjayinī | Modern Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh |

| Vaiśhālī | Modern Bihar region |

| Mathurā | Modern Mathura, Uttar Pradesh |

| Indraprastha | Modern Delhi |

| Takṣhaśhilā | Northwest (modern Pakistan/Punjab region) |

| Śhiśhupalgarh | Modern Sisupalgarh, Bhubaneswar |

| Kodumanal | Near Erode, Tamil Nadu |

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WHAT YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO DO AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER

1. **Explain** what the Second Urbanisation of India was and how it differed from the First Urbanisation.

2. **Define** janapadas and mahājanapadas and explain their importance in Indian history.

3. **Identify** the 16 mahājanapadas on a map and locate their capitals.

4. **Describe** the early democratic traditions in janapadas and mahājanapadas, giving examples of monarchical and republican systems.

5. **Explain** the importance of iron metallurgy and punch-marked coins in the development of the mahājanapadas.

6. **Understand** the varṇa-jāti system - its components, purposes, and how it evolved from flexibility to rigidity.

7. **Describe** the main trade routes (Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha) and their role in connecting different regions.

8. **Explain** the development of cities and kingdoms in eastern and southern India.

9. **Discuss** how the mahājanapadas ceased to exist by 300-200 BCE and made way for new political developments.

10. **Analyze** how various innovations in technology, governance, and economics shaped the Second Urbanisation period.

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QUESTIONS STUDENTS MIGHT ENCOUNTER AND ANSWERS BASED ON NOTES

**Q1: What do you understand by the Second Urbanisation of India?**

A: The Second Urbanisation refers to the vibrant new phase of urbanization that began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and parts of the Indus basin, gradually spreading to other parts of the Subcontinent. It marked a return to urban life after about 1000 years with minimal urbanization following the decline of the Harappan civilization. This phase continued through the mahājanapada period and has continued to the present day.

**Q2: Why was the emergence of mahājanapadas important?**

A: The emergence of mahājanapadas was important because they were the first organized states of the 1st millennium BCE. They witnessed the Second Urbanisation of India and developed sophisticated systems of governance (both monarchical and democratic). They facilitated trade, created the first coins, brought about iron technology, and established connections between different regions of the Subcontinent through trade routes.

**Q3: How did the political systems of Vajji and Malla differ from other mahājanapadas?**

A: Unlike most mahājanapadas which were monarchies ruled by a single rājā, Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla had gaṇa or sangha systems. In these systems, the assembly (sabhā/samiti) had more power and made important decisions through discussion and voting. Most importantly, the ruler was also selected by the assembly through voting, making these early republics rather than monarchies.

**Q4: What was the varṇa-jāti system?**

A: The varṇa-jāti system was a two-fold system of social organization in ancient India. Varṇa consisted of four broad categories (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras) based on occupation and social role. Jāti was more specific - groups of people with a particular occupational skill transmitted from generation to generation. The system provided stability to society by organizing different occupations and social groups.

**Q5: How important was iron metallurgy for the development of the mahājanapadas?**

A: Iron metallurgy was crucial because iron tools, once widespread by late 2nd millennium BCE, facilitated agriculture on a much larger scale. This enabled more food production to support growing populations in cities. Additionally, iron weapons (swords, spears, arrows, shields) were better than bronze weapons, lighter and sharper, which enabled warfare and military campaigns that led to the formation of larger kingdoms and empires.