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New Beginnings: Cities and States

NCERT Class 7 · Social Science Based on NCERT Class 7 Social Science textbook · Free CBSE study kit

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Chapter Notes

Overview
This chapter explains the rise of cities and states in India after the decline of the Harappan civilisation, known as the 'Second Urbanisation'. It covers the formation of janapadas and mahājanapadas, their systems of governance, technological innovations like iron and coins, and the varṇa-jāti system. The one big idea a student must walk away with is that the 1st millennium BCE saw the emergence of organised states, urban centres, and complex societies that laid the foundation for later empires and Indian civilisation.
Key Concepts (12)
Second Urbanisation
A new phase of urbanisation that began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus basin, and neighbouring regions, which has continued up to today.
e.g. Cities like Rājagṛiha (modern Rajgir in Bihar) and Kauśhāmbī (near Prayagraj) were part of this Second Urbanisation.
Janapada
A territory or state where a clan (jana) has set foot (pada) and settled down, led by a rājā or ruler.
e.g. Each janapada was like a small kingdom, such as the one led by a rājā in the Ganga plains.
Mahājanapada
A larger state formed by the merging of several janapadas by the 8th or 7th centuries BCE; there were 16 major mahājanapadas.
e.g. Magadha (in today's Bihar), Kosala (in today's Uttar Pradesh), and Avanti (in today's Madhya Pradesh) were powerful mahājanapadas.
Sabhā or Samiti
An assembly or council in a janapada where matters concerning the clan were discussed; members were usually elders.
e.g. In the Vajji mahājanapada, the sabhā had the power to select the rājā through discussion and vote.
Gaṇa or Sangha
A type of mahājanapada that was not a monarchy but functioned like a democracy, where the assembly selected the ruler and took major decisions.
e.g. Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla were gaṇas or sanghas, often called 'early republics'.
Punch-marked coins
The first Indian coins, made of silver, into which symbols were 'punched'; each mahājanapada issued its own coins.
e.g. These coins were used for trade between different regions and even with other parts of the world.
Varṇa
A category in Indian society that emerged from Vedic texts, dividing society into four groups: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
e.g. Brahmins were engaged in knowledge and rituals, Kshatriyas in defence, Vaishyas in trade and agriculture, and Shudras as artisans and workers.
Jāti
A group or community of people with a specific professional occupation, often transmitted from generation to generation.
e.g. A jāti of potters would pass down pottery skills from parents to children.
Uttarapatha
A major trade route that connected the northwest regions to the Ganga plains, all the way to eastern India.
e.g. Goods and ideas travelled along the Uttarapatha from Gandhāra to Anga.
Dakṣhiṇapatha
A major trade route that started from Kauśhāmbī (near Prayagraj) and crossed the Vindhya Range to proceed south.
e.g. This route connected the northern mahājanapadas to southern kingdoms like the Cholas, Cheras, and Pānḍyas.
Moat
A deep, wide ditch surrounding a fort or fortified city, filled with water for defence.
e.g. The capital cities of mahājanapadas often had a moat outside the fortifications.
Iron metallurgy
The techniques of extracting and shaping iron, which became widespread by the late 2nd millennium BCE, leading to better tools and weapons.
e.g. Iron ploughs helped farmers grow more crops, and iron swords were lighter and sharper than bronze weapons.
How It Works
Formation of Janapadas and Mahājanapadas
  1. Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, regional cultures reorganised themselves in north India.
  2. People formed clans or groups sharing a common language and customs.
  3. Each clan came to be associated with a territory called a janapada, led by a rājā.
  4. Trade networks expanded and connected janapadas.
  5. By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, some janapadas merged into larger units called mahājanapadas.
  6. There were 16 major mahājanapadas, from Gandhāra in the northwest to Anga in the east and Aśhmaka in central India.
💡 Students often forget that janapadas came first, and mahājanapadas were formed later by merging janapadas.
Governance in Janapadas and Mahājanapadas
  1. Each janapada had a sabhā or samiti (assembly of elders) to discuss clan matters.
  2. The rājā was expected to take advice from the assembly, ministers, and administrators.
  3. In monarchies, the rājā was the ultimate authority, and his position was hereditary.
  4. In gaṇas or sanghas (like Vajji and Malla), the assembly had more power and could select the rājā through discussion and vote.
  5. The king collected taxes, maintained law and order, built fortifications, and maintained an army.
💡 Students often think all mahājanapadas were monarchies, but Vajji and Malla were early republics with democratic features.
Technological Innovations in the Second Urbanisation
  1. Iron metallurgy was perfected from the early 2nd millennium BCE.
  2. By the late 2nd millennium BCE, iron tools became widespread, improving agriculture.
  3. Iron weapons (swords, spears, arrows) were lighter and sharper than bronze, aiding warfare.
  4. The first Indian coins (punch-marked silver coins) were introduced due to growing trade.
  5. Later, coins of copper, gold, and other metals were made.
💡 Students often confuse the timeline: iron became widespread in the late 2nd millennium BCE, not earlier.
Development of Trade Routes and Southern Kingdoms
  1. Two major routes, Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha, connected different regions.
  2. Lateral roads connected ports on the western and eastern coasts.
  3. In the east, cities like Śhiśhupalgarh (in Kalinga) emerged with fortifications and broad streets.
  4. In the south, three kingdoms emerged around 400 BCE: Cholas, Cheras, and Pānḍyas.
  5. Southern regions traded precious stones, gold, and spices with India and overseas kingdoms.
💡 Students often think the southern kingdoms emerged much later, but they began forming around 400 BCE.
Exam Traps — Don't Make These Mistakes
⚠ Confusing Janapada and Mahājanapada
✗ Janapadas and mahājanapadas are the same thing.
→ Janapadas were smaller states formed by clans, while mahājanapadas were larger states formed by merging janapadas.
✓ Janapadas were early states led by a rājā; mahājanapadas were bigger units formed by the merging of janapadas by the 8th-7th centuries BCE.
⚠ Thinking All Mahājanapadas Were Monarchies
✗ All mahājanapadas were monarchies where the king had absolute power.
→ Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla were gaṇas or sanghas, which were early republics where the assembly selected the ruler.
✓ Most mahājanapadas were monarchies, but Vajji and Malla were early republics (gaṇas/sanghas) with democratic features.
⚠ Confusing the Timeline of Iron Use
✗ Iron was first used during the Second Urbanisation in the 1st millennium BCE.
→ Iron metallurgy was perfected from the early 2nd millennium BCE, but it became widespread in daily life by the late 2nd millennium BCE.
✓ Iron tools became widespread by the late 2nd millennium BCE, which helped agriculture and warfare during the Second Urbanisation.
⚠ Mixing Up Varṇa and Jāti
✗ Varṇa and jāti are the same thing.
→ Varṇa is a four-fold system from Vedic texts (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras), while jāti refers to specific occupational communities that could be subdivided.
✓ Varṇa is the broad four-fold classification, while jāti is a more specific occupational group; the term 'caste' can refer to either or both.
⚠ Thinking the Second Urbanisation Only Happened in the Ganga Plains
✗ The Second Urbanisation only occurred in the Ganga plains.
→ It began in the Ganga plains but spread to parts of the Indus basin, neighbouring regions, and eventually to south India by 400 BCE.
✓ The Second Urbanisation began in the Ganga plains and spread to other parts of the Subcontinent, including the south by 400 BCE.
Compare & Contrast
Location and spread
First Urbanisation (Harappan Civilisation)
Second Urbanisation (Janapadas and Mahājanapadas)
The First Urbanisation was centred in the Indus/Sindhu-Sarasvatī region, while the Second Urbanisation began in the Ganga plains and spread across north and south India.
System of governance
Monarchy (e.g., Magadha)
Gaṇa/Sangha (e.g., Vajji)
In a monarchy, the rājā was the ultimate authority with hereditary succession; in a gaṇa/sangha, the assembly (sabhā) had more power and could select the ruler through discussion and vote.
Exam Focus
Marks pattern: 2 MCQs (1 mark each), 1 SA (3 marks), 1 LA (5 marks)
Most asked: Meaning and features of Second Urbanisation · Formation and list of 16 mahājanapadas · Governance systems: monarchy vs. gaṇa/sangha · Importance of iron metallurgy · Varṇa-jāti system
Don't skip: Explain the difference between janapadas and mahājanapadas with examples.; Describe the governance system of the gaṇas/sanghas and why they are called early republics.; Why was iron metallurgy important for the Second Urbanisation?
One-Line Revision (read aloud before the exam)
  1. The Second Urbanisation began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and spread across India.
  2. Janapadas were small states led by a rājā, while mahājanapadas were larger states formed by merging janapadas.
  3. There were 16 major mahājanapadas, including Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti.
  4. The sabhā or samiti was an assembly of elders that advised the ruler in janapadas.
  5. Vajji and Malla were gaṇas or sanghas, which were early republics with democratic features.
  6. Iron metallurgy became widespread by the late 2nd millennium BCE, improving agriculture and warfare.
  7. Punch-marked coins made of silver were the first Indian coins, used for trade.
  8. The varṇa system divided society into Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
  9. Jāti refers to specific occupational communities that were often hereditary.
  10. The Uttarapatha connected the northwest to the Ganga plains, and the Dakṣhiṇapatha connected north to south India.
  11. Southern kingdoms like the Cholas, Cheras, and Pānḍyas emerged around 400 BCE.
  12. The mahājanapadas ceased to exist by 300-200 BCE, leading to new developments.

MCQs — 10 Questions with Answers

Q1. Which period is called India's 'Second Urbanisation'?

  • A. 1st millennium BCE onwards ✓
  • B. 2nd millennium BCE
  • C. 1st millennium CE
  • D. 3rd century BCE only

Answer: A — The Second Urbanisation began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and has continued until today.

Q2. What does 'mahājanapada' mean?

  • A. A small village settlement
  • B. A great kingdom formed by merging janapadas ✓
  • C. A single clan territory
  • D. A trade network centre

Answer: B — Mahājanapadas were bigger units formed when early janapadas merged together by the 8th or 7th centuries BCE.

Q3. Which metal made better tools and weapons during Second Urbanisation?

  • A. Copper
  • B. Bronze
  • C. Iron ✓
  • D. Gold

Answer: C — Iron tools were lighter, sharper and better than bronze for both agriculture and warfare.

Q4. What was the main function of a sabhā in a janapada?

  • A. To collect taxes from people
  • B. To discuss matters and advise the rājā ✓
  • C. To manufacture weapons
  • D. To manage trade routes

Answer: B — The sabhā was an assembly of elders that discussed clan matters and gave advice to the rājā.

Q5. Which two mahājanapadas functioned as early republics?

  • A. Magadha and Kosala
  • B. Avanti and Aśhmaka
  • C. Vajji and Malla ✓
  • D. Vatsa and Chedi

Answer: C — Vajji and Malla had gaṇa or sangha systems where the assembly selected the rājā and made major decisions democratically.

Q6. Why were most mahājanapadas concentrated in the Ganga plains? (Choose the BEST reason)

  • A. They wanted to avoid mountains
  • B. Fertile soil for agriculture, iron ore in hills, and growing trade networks ✓
  • C. The Harappan cities were located there
  • D. It was closer to the Indus River

Answer: B — The Ganga plains had fertile soil for agriculture, neighbouring iron ore, and expanding trade networks — all essential for state growth.

Q7. What was the main advantage of narrow gateways in fortified cities?

  • A. To make cities look beautiful
  • B. To save stone and materials
  • C. To allow guards to control movement of people and goods ✓
  • D. To prevent monsoon rain from entering

Answer: C — Narrow gateways gave guards the ability to check and control who entered or left the fortified city.

Q8. Which of these is NOT a feature that Kauṭilya mentioned for a good capital city? (Read the opening quote carefully)

  • A. Should have cultivable land, mines and forests
  • B. Should support population in times of calamity
  • C. Should depend only on rain for water ✓
  • D. Should have good roads and waterways

Answer: C — Kauṭilya clearly stated a city should NOT depend only on rain for water — it needed other water sources.

Q9. Why did punch-marked coins become necessary in the age of mahājanapadas?

  • A. Kings wanted to show their wealth
  • B. Growing trade required a standardised medium of exchange ✓
  • C. People wanted to collect them as hobbies
  • D. It was a way to pay taxes only

Answer: B — As trade networks expanded between regions, punch-marked coins provided a reliable and standardised way to exchange goods.

Q10. What was the KEY difference between monarchies (like Magadha) and republics (like Vajji) among mahājanapadas?

  • A. Republics had no assembly while monarchies had many
  • B. Monarchies had the rājā as ultimate authority; republics had the assembly select and control the rājā ✓
  • C. Republics used iron tools while monarchies used bronze
  • D. Monarchies collected coins while republics did not

Answer: B — In monarchies, the rājā held ultimate power; in republics like Vajji and Malla, the assembly selected the ruler and made major decisions.

Flashcards

What does 'janapada' mean in Sanskrit?

It means 'where the people have set foot' or 'where people have settled down.'

Name the 16 mahājanapadas' most powerful kingdoms.

The most powerful were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti.

What was a sabhā or samiti?

It was an assembly or council where clan elders discussed important matters and advised the rājā.

Which two mahājanapadas had a democratic system?

Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla had democratic systems where the assembly selected the rājā and made decisions.

What were punch-marked coins?

They were the first Indian coins made of silver with symbols punched into them to show their value.

Why was iron technology important for Second Urbanisation?

Iron tools were better for agriculture and iron weapons were lighter and sharper than bronze ones.

Name three mahājanapada capitals that are modern Indian cities today.

Rājagṛiha (Rajgir), Ujjayinī (Ujjain), and Mathurā (Mathura) are ancient capitals that are modern cities today.

What was a moat in an ancient fortified city?

A moat was a deep, wide ditch filled with water that surrounded a fort or fortified city for defence.

Why did narrow gateways in city ramparts matter?

Narrow gateways allowed guards to control and check the movement of people and goods entering or leaving the city.

What happened to Harappan cities after First Urbanisation?

Many were abandoned, people reverted to village lifestyles, and urban life remained absent from India for about a thousand years.

Important Board Questions

What is meant by 'Second Urbanisation of India'? [1 mark]

It began in 1st millennium BCE in Ganga plains; refers to the new phase of city growth after Harappan cities were abandoned.

Explain how janapadas became mahājanapadas. What role did trade play in this process? [2 marks]

Janapadas were small clan territories; as trade networks expanded, they connected and merged into larger mahājanapadas units by 8th-7th century BCE.

Compare the political systems of monarchy and republic among mahājanapadas. Give one example of each type. [3 marks]

Monarchies (Magadha, Kosala, Avanti): rājā had ultimate power, supported by ministers and assembly. Republics (Vajji, Malla): assembly selected rājā and made decisions through discussion/vote.

Describe three major innovations of the Second Urbanisation period and explain why each was important for the growth of cities and states. [5 marks]

Iron metallurgy (better tools & weapons), punch-marked coins (trade exchange), and fortified capitals with moats (defence & control). Explain each one's impact on agriculture, economy, and security.

Assertion-Reason Questions for New Beginnings: Cities and States

Q1. Assertion (A):

The Second Urbanisation of India was a continuation of the Harappan civilisation's urban development.

Reason (R):

Urban centres existed continuously from the Harappan period until the mahājanapadas emerged.

Answer: D — A is false but R is true — Both the assertion and reason are false. The text explicitly states there was a complete break: 'for a whole millennium, urban life remained absent from India' after the Harappan collapse. The Second Urbanisation was a new development, not a continuation. There is a clear gap of about 1,000 years between the First and Second Urbanisations.

Q2. Assertion (A):

Mahājanapadas like Vajji and Malla had democratic systems where the assembly held significant power.

Reason (R):

These mahājanapadas were called gaṇas or sanghas and the assembly could select the rājā through discussion and voting.

Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A — Both assertion and reason are true, and the reason correctly explains why these mahājanapadas can be called democratic. The text states that in Vajji and Malla, 'the sabhā or samiti had more power and took important decisions through discussion, and, if necessary, through vote. This included the selection of the rājā!' This clearly supports the assertion.

Q3. Assertion (A):

The janapadas required strong trade networks to grow and consolidate into mahājanapadas.

Reason (R):

Iron ore availability in the Ganga plains was the only factor that promoted mahājanapada formation.

Answer: C — A is true but R is false — The assertion is true — the text states 'The janapadas grew as trade networks expanded and connected them.' However, the reason is false because it claims iron ore was the 'only factor,' when the text mentions multiple contributing factors including fertile plains and trade networks. The assertion is supported but the reason oversimplifies causation.

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Case-Based Questions (CBQ) for New Beginnings: Cities and States

Case Study:

An archaeological team excavating the ruins of Rājagṛiha (modern Rajgir in Bihar) discovered remains of strong fortification walls with a moat running around them. The gates through the walls were deliberately narrow and designed to be controlled by guards. The city was located in a fertile region near the Ganga plains with access to nearby iron ore deposits. Ancient Buddhist and Jain texts extensively describe this city's importance as the capital of the Magadha mahājanapada. The ruins show evidence of different districts for craftspeople, merchants, and administrators.

Q1. Based on the excavation findings, which of the following was a primary reason for locating Rājagṛiha in this specific area?

  • A. To isolate the capital from trade influences
  • B. Access to fertile plains, water resources, and iron ore for economic and military purposes ✓
  • C. To avoid contact with other mahājanapadas
  • D. Because Vedic texts commanded the rulers to build cities only near rivers

Answer: B

Q2. The narrow gateways with guard control points suggest that the city planners of Rājagṛiha understood:

  • A. Defence and regulation of people and goods movement were important administrative functions ✓
  • B. The city should be closed to all outside trade
  • C. Guards were more important than the city's economic prosperity
  • D. Modern city planning had already been invented in ancient times

Answer: A

Q3. The evidence of different districts for craftspeople, merchants, and administrators indicates that Rājagṛiha had:

  • A. No unified city plan or organisation
  • B. A specialised economy with different occupational groups, similar to Harappan cities ✓
  • C. Only one type of worker — administrators
  • D. All residents engaged only in agriculture with no crafts or trade

Answer: B

Q4. How do we know about Rājagṛiha's importance as described in the passage?

  • A. Only from the physical ruins and fortifications
  • B. Only from ancient Buddhist and Jain texts that describe the city
  • C. From both archaeological excavations and descriptions in ancient literature ✓
  • D. From detailed written records left by rulers of Magadha

Answer: C

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