COMPREHENSIVE CHAPTER NOTES
EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS: 6TH TO 10TH CENTURIES
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INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT
**Time Period**: This chapter covers approximately 600 CE to 1200 CE — six centuries after the fall of the Gupta Empire.
**Alternative Names for This Period**: 'Post-classical', 'late classical', and 'early medieval' are terms sometimes used, but we focus on the broad chronology rather than specific labels.
**Key Understanding**: Although the mighty Gupta Empire has ended, India during this period is NOT declining or disorganized. Instead, it is a land of:
**Multiple regional kingdoms** that are powerful and dynamic
**Flourishing arts, culture, and intellectual activity** in different regions
**Vibrant cities, universities, and temples** across the subcontinent
**Active trade networks** both within India and with distant lands
**The French scholars Louis Renou and Jean Filliozat** noted: "India never spoke her last word. In all things, she continues, survives and renews herself." This quote reminds us that India's strength and cultural creativity did not end with the Guptas.
**Map Reference (Fig. 3.3)**: Shows the major dynasties spread across north and peninsular India, including Puṣhyabhūtis, Gurjara-Pratīhāras, Pālas, Rāṣhṭrakūṭas, and others.
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THE 'GREAT KING OF KINGS': HARṢHAVARDHANA
Overview and Early Life
**Harṣhavardhana** (also called **Harṣha**) is one of the most remarkable rulers of this period.
**Birth Dynasty**: Belonged to the **Puṣhyabhūti** (also called **Vardhana**) dynasty
**Original Capital**: The dynasty's earlier capital was at **Sthāneśhvara** (present-day Thanesar in Haryana)
**Year of Ascension**: **606 CE** — when Harṣha became king at Kannauj
**New Capital**: **Kannauj** (also spelled Kanauj, anciently known as Kānyakubja) in present-day Uttar Pradesh on the banks of River Ganga
**Geographical Significance**: The shift from capitals in northern regions (like Sthāneśhvara) to Kannauj marked a change in power centers, affecting northern Indian politics.
Expansion of Empire
Harṣha expanded his empire over **large parts of northern and eastern India**, though the exact boundaries are not known with complete certainty
He **attempted to extend southward** beyond the Narmada River but was stopped by Pulakeśhin II of the Chālukya dynasty
He **dreamed of uniting northern India** but achieved only mixed success
He formed an **alliance with the Varman dynasty of Kāmarūpa** (in today's Assam; their capital Prāgjyotiṣha was near modern Guwahati)
Despite alliances, **conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms continued**
Cultural and Literary Contributions
**Harṣha as a Poet and Dramatist**:
He was the **author of three plays** composed in classical Sanskrit
His plays wove together **love stories with courtly life** and **themes of sacrifice and high ethical values**
Historians use such literature as sources to understand **culture, society, governance systems, social diversity, technologies, foods, and clothing** of the period
**Patronage of Scholars**:
He patronized **Bāṇabhaṭṭa** (also known as Bāṇa), a celebrated scholar
Bāṇa wrote **Kādambarī**, considered one of the world's first novels (7th century) with elaborate, complex plots involving princes, celestial beings, love stories across multiple births and dreams
Bāṇa also wrote **Harṣhacharita**, a biography of Harṣha himself
**Religious Attitudes**:
**Inscriptions depict Harṣha as a devotee of Śhiva** (a Hindu god)
According to other sources, he was **deeply attached to Buddhism**
He showed **respect for all schools of thought and belief** — an important quality for rulers of this time
Xuanzang's Account and Visit
**Xuanzang** (earlier transcribed as Hsuan Tsang or Hiuen Tsang) was a **Chinese Buddhist pilgrim and scholar**.
**Details of His Journey**:
He traveled in India between **630 and 644 CE** — about two centuries after Faxian (another Chinese pilgrim who visited during the Gupta era)
His motivation was to **visit sacred Buddhist sites and learn doctrines from Indian teachers**
He **brought back more than 600 Sanskrit Buddhist manuscripts** to China, carried by 20 horses
He spent years **translating these Sanskrit texts into Chinese**
He left **a meticulous written account** of his journey, recording important details about **politics, diplomacy, culture, and religion** in the kingdoms he visited
**Historical Importance**: His travelogue is **a major source of information for historians** studying this period
**Xuanzang's Route (Fig. 3.7)**:
Started from **Xi'an, China**
Crossed the **Taklamakan Desert** and **Gobi Desert**
Passed through cities like **Kashgar, Samarkand, and Kabul**
Crossed the **Hindu Kush mountains**
Entered India through **Taxila** and **Multan**
Visited major Buddhist centers including:
**Nalanda** (in Bihar) — a renowned university
**Bodh Gaya** — the place where Buddha attained enlightenment
**Lumbini** — Buddha's birthplace
**Ajanta** — famous cave temples with paintings
**Kanchipuram** — an important religious center in south India
And many other cities and universities
**Welcoming at Harṣha's Court**:
Harṣhavardhana **warmly welcomed** Xuanzang and two other Chinese ambassadors
Harṣha held a **grand assembly at Kannauj** in Xuanzang's honor
The assembly was **attended by kings and leaders of many religious sects**
Xuanzang described Kannauj as a **beautiful and prosperous city**
**Information from Xuanzang About Harṣha**:
Harṣha was a **just and energetic ruler**
He **maintained a vast army**
He was **often engaged in military campaigns**
**Every five years**, he held an **assembly at Prayāga** (present-day Prayagraj at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna rivers)
At Prayāga, after performing **sacred religious rites**, he **gave away much wealth** to **Buddhists, Brahmins, and the poor**
Harṣha's Death and Legacy
**Year of Death**: **647 CE**
**After His Death**: Northern India fell into political turmoil, with various powers competing for supremacy, particularly over the city of Kannauj.
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THE TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE FOR KANNAUJ
Definition and Overview
**Tripartite** means a situation involving **three distinct parties or players**.
After Harṣha's death in 647 CE, northern India experienced a long period called the **'Tripartite Struggle'** that lasted through the 8th and 9th centuries.
**The Three Major Powers**:
1. **The Pālas** — from the **east** (Bengal and eastern India)
2. **The Gurjara-Pratīhāras** — from the **west** (western India)
3. **The Rāṣhṭrakūṭas** — from the **Deccan** (southern region)
Why Kannauj Was So Important
**Strategic Significance of Kannauj's Location**:
It was located in the **Gangetic plains** — the heart of north India
It was on the banks of the **River Ganga**, providing access to water trade and agriculture
It was the **political and cultural center** of northern India
Controlling Kannauj meant having authority over the **most fertile and populated regions**
It provided access to **rich resources and trade routes**
Nature of the Struggle
The three powers **repeatedly warred against each other** during the 8th and 9th centuries
The outcomes were **constantly fluctuating** — no single power remained victorious for long
There was **no lasting victor** — the struggle was indecisive
Each power gained control of Kannauj at different times but could not maintain it
This constant warfare **prevented any one kingdom from dominating all of northern India**
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THE PĀLAS DYNASTY
Origin and Rise
**Foundation of the Dynasty**:
After Harṣha's death, the **Bengal region fell into disorder and instability**
According to an inscription, the **people chose Gopāla** in **750 CE** to restore stability and order
**Gopāla became the first king of the Pāla dynasty**
The Pālas soon **ruled over much of eastern India**
Expansion Under Dharmapāla
**Dharmapāla** was Gopāla's successor and greatly expanded Pāla power.
**Territorial Expansion**:
He **expanded the Pāla Empire over much of eastern and northern India**
He became a **great patron of Mahāyāna Buddhism** (a major branch of Buddhism — see Chapter 'India and Her Neighbours')
Major Contributions to Learning
**Founding of Great Monasteries**:
He founded **Vikramaśhilā** monastery/university in present-day Bihar on the banks of the Ganga in the **late 8th century**
He founded **Somapura** monastery in present-day Bangladesh
He **continued to patronize Nālandā**, which had existed since earlier times
**Patronage Beyond Monasteries**:
The Pālas were not limited to founding new institutions but also **supported existing centers of learning**
They recognized the importance of **preserving and expanding knowledge**
Vikramaśhilā: A University with Selective Admission
**Structure and Organization**:
Had **six colleges** with separate areas for study
Contained **monasteries, temples, lecture halls**, and a **vast library**
Nearly **3,000 scholars** studied there at any given time
**Subjects of Study**:
**Grammar**
**Logic** (methods of reasoning)
**Hindu philosophy and texts**
**Buddhist philosophy and texts**
**Learning and rituals** of various traditions
**Unique Feature: Dvārapaṇḍita ('Scholar Gatekeepers')**:
Each college had a **scholar gatekeeper** called a **dvārapaṇḍita**
These gatekeepers **tested students before allowing them entry**
This meant **admission was highly selective** — only the most qualified students could study there
This system ensured **high standards of learning and scholarship**
**International Connections**:
Vikramaśhilā was **especially known for its ties with Tibet**
One of its **famous teachers traveled to Tibet**
This teacher **translated Sanskrit works into Tibetan**
He **played a major role in shaping Tibetan Buddhism** (also called Vajrayāna Buddhism)
Students came from **far away, even beyond India**, attracted by its reputation
**Duration and Importance**:
Remained a **great center of learning for more than four centuries**
Was one of hundreds, if not **thousands of important centers of learning** spread across India
These centers **kept alive and enriched India's long-standing knowledge traditions**
**Later Destruction**:
Was **plundered and destroyed by Bakhtiyār Khiljī in the 12th century** (we will learn about this later)
Economic Prosperity of the Pāla Empire
**Sources of Wealth**:
The empire flourished economically thanks to **internal trade**
More importantly, there was **brisk maritime trade** through seaports on the **east coast**
These seaports provided **pathways to Southeast Asia**, enabling extensive foreign trade
Maritime trade brought wealth, goods, and cultural exchange
**Legacy**:
Though the empire later **declined in power**, it left a **lasting legacy of strong governance and learning** in parts of **eastern and northern India**
Religious Patronage of the Pālas
**Important Note About Religion in This Period**:
In ancient India, the **concept of religion was more fluid than today**. Key points to understand:
**Except for monks and nuns**, ordinary people felt **comfortable with various belief systems** and could **practice different modes of worship simultaneously**
People often did **not regard Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism as separate religions**, but rather as **branches of a common philosophical tree**
**Rulers often took pride in patronizing multiple schools of thought** to show their broad-mindedness and inclusiveness
**The Pālas' Religious Approach**:
While Dharmapāla is often called **Buddhist** and certainly patronized Buddhist learning and institutions
His **successors, though still patronizing Buddhist institutions**, were said to be **devotees of Śhiva** (a Hindu deity)
This reflects the **fluid and inclusive nature of belief systems** during this time
The **Rāṣhṭrakūṭas and other rulers** showed similar patterns of religious tolerance and patronage
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THE GURJARA-PRATĪHĀRAS DYNASTY
Origins and Early History
**Founding**:
The dynasty was **founded in the mid-8th century CE** by **Nāgabhaṭa I**
**Origin**: Probably came from western India
**Meaning of 'Gurjara'**:
The name 'Gurjara' referred to a **region between Gujarat and Rajasthan**
This indicates the geographic origin of the dynasty
Capital Cities
**Early Capital**: **Bhillamāla** (modern Bhinmal in western Rajasthan)
**Later Capital**: The capital **shifted to Ujjayinī** in later periods
Rise to Power and Military Achievement
**Against Arab Invasions**:
The Gurjara-Pratīhāras **gained fame for pushing back Arab invasions** into northwest India
We will learn more about these Arab invasions and the Pratīhāra response later in this chapter
The Greatest Ruler: King Bhoja
**Time Period**: Ruled in the **9th century**
**Bhoja's Achievements**:
He was a **celebrated ruler** of the Pratīhāra dynasty
He was a **devotee of Viṣhṇu** (a major Hindu deity)
He built an **empire stretching from Punjab and Kathiawar (Saurashtra) in the west to Kannauj in the east**
His empire **controlled most of north India**
He became one of the most powerful rulers of his time
**Royal Titles**:
**'Mihira'** — a name of the Sun, indicating his brightness and brilliance
**'Ādi Varāha'** — referring to Varāha, an avatar (incarnation) of Viṣhṇu in the form of a boar
These titles reflected his **Hindu devotion and royal power**
Decline of the Gurjara-Pratīhāras
**Reasons for Decline**:
**About a century after Bhoja**, the Gurjara-Pratīhāras suffered a major setback
The **Rāṣhṭrakūṭa rulers destroyed Kannauj**, which was their main stronghold
This destruction **hastened the disintegration of their empire**
Finally, in the **early 11th century, they were eliminated by the Ghaznavids** (we will learn about these invaders in the next chapter)
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THE RĀṢHṬRAKŪṬAS DYNASTY
Origins and Rise to Power
**Establishment**:
In the **mid-8th century**, **Dantidurga** became the **first independent Rāṣhṭrakūṭa ruler**
He achieved this by **overthrowing the Chālukyas** in the Deccan (a dynasty we will meet later in this chapter)
This marked a major power shift in south India
**Geographic Base**:
The Rāṣhṭrakūṭas **shifted their power center to present-day Karnataka**
**Capital**: **Mānyakheṭa** (modern Malkheda in Karnataka)
Territorial Extent and Duration
**Duration as Major Power**: **Nearly two centuries** — they dominated from mid-8th to 10th centuries
**Territorial Span**:
Their empire **spanned much of the subcontinent**
They became **one of the most dominant powers of the period**
**Expansion Northward**:
Dantidurga's successors **campaigned successfully in north India**
They **briefly occupied Kannauj**, the prize in the Tripartite Struggle
Though they couldn't hold it permanently, their power extended far beyond the Deccan
Cultural Achievements and Patronage
**The Kailaśhanātha Temple**
**Creator**: **King Krishna I** commissioned the temple
**Location**: **Ellora** (in present-day Maharashtra)
**What Makes It Special**:
It is the **largest rock-cut temple in India**
It was not built brick by brick, but **carved out of a hillside** — a gigantic sculpture
The entire structure was **carved from a single hillside**, showing remarkable engineering and artistic skill
It took years to complete and represents the **height of medieval Indian temple architecture**
**Religious Significance**:
The temple is **dedicated to Śhiva** (reflected in the name Kailaśhanātha — Kailash, the abode of Śhiva)
Shows the **Rāṣhṭrakūṭas' devotion to Śhiva**
**Patronage of Multiple Traditions**:
The Rāṣhṭrakūṭas **equally patronized Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain schools of thought**
They **encouraged learning and literature** in multiple languages:
**Sanskrit** (classical language)
**Prakrit** (regional languages)
**Kannada** (local language of the region)
This shows their **inclusive and culturally rich approach**
Amoghavarṣha I: The 'Peak of Kings'
**Time Period**: Ruled in the **9th century**
**Royal Title**:
**'Nṛipatunga'** — literally means **'peak of kings'**
This title reflects his status as the most powerful ruler of his time
**Length of Reign**:
His reign lasted an **extraordinary 64 years**
This long and stable reign **ensured peace and prosperity** in his empire
Despite **frequent wars with neighbouring kingdoms** (including the Pālas and Gurjara-Pratīhāras), he maintained **internal stability**
**Religious Identity**:
He is sometimes called a **'Jain king'** because he was **strongly drawn to Jainism**
However, he **also patronized Hindu temples**
This reflects the **fluid religious identity of rulers** during this period
**Literary Contributions**:
He was a **fine poet** himself
He **composed works in Sanskrit and Kannada**
Supported literature and intellectual pursuits in his empire
**Modern Legacy**:
**'Nrupatunga Road'** in central Bengaluru (modern name for Bangalore) is named after Amoghavarṣha I
This street is home to several government buildings and institutions
Testimony to Rāṣhṭrakūṭa Tolerance
**Al-Masūdī's Account**:
**Al-Masūdī** was a **10th-century Arab historian and traveler from Baghdad**
He visited or wrote about the Rāṣhṭrakūṭas and gave high praise:
He noted the Rāṣhṭrakūṭa ruler had **"innumerable troops and elephants"**
He stated: **"There is none among the rulers of Sindh and Hind who in his territory respects the Muslims [as he does]"**
He observed: **"In his kingdom, Islam is honoured and protected"**
He noted: **"Mosques and congregational mosques, which are always full, have been built for offering prayers five times"**
**What This Tells Us**:
The Rāṣhṭrakūṭas were **remarkably tolerant of religions different from their own**
They **protected and patronized Islam** even though they were Hindu/Jain rulers
They **built mosques and supported Muslim communities**
This shows **religious pluralism and inclusive governance** — traits rare in medieval kingdoms
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OTHER POWERS: KASHMIR
Geographic Location and Significance
**Location**: **Kāśhmīra** — the Himalayan kingdom of present-day Kashmir, far to the north of the Tripartite Struggle
**Significance**: A separate power center with its own important rulers and distinct political history
Historical Sources
**Kalhaṇa's Rājatarangiṇī**
**Author**: **Kalhaṇa** was a Kashmiri scholar and poet
**Work**: He authored **Rājatarangiṇī**, literally translated as **'the River of Kings'**
**Composition**: Written in **Sanskrit** in the **12th century**
**Content**:
It **narrates the history of Kashmir's rulers**
Describes the reigns of **many kings and a few queens**
Provides details about **governance, battles, construction, and cultural activities**
**Historical Value**:
Along with **inscriptions and coins**, Rājatarangiṇī is a **major source for understanding Kashmir's history**
It is one of the **few historical chronicles from medieval India**
Major Rulers of Kashmir
**Lalitāditya Muktāpīda**
**Dynasty**: Part of the **Kārkoṭa dynasty**
**Time Period**: Mid-8th century onwards
**Characteristics**:
He was a **firm and strong ruler**
He **consolidated Kashmir's power**
His reign marked a **period of stability** in Kashmir
**After Lalitāditya**:
Following his reign, **Kashmir's political scene experienced many internal conflicts**
There were **frequent shifts of power**
Some rulers **seized the throne by force**, showing instability
Queen Diddā: A Rare Female Ruler
**Time Period**: Late 10th century
**Rise to Power**:
She **consolidated her power through strategic alliances**
According to Kalhaṇa, she also **ruthlessly eliminated rivals**
Notably, she **removed even her own grandsons** who posed threats to her rule
Her methods were harsh but effective in maintaining her grip on power
**Achievements**:
She **founded a few towns** in Kashmir
She **built several temples**
She **restored many existing temples and structures**
She was an **active builder and patron of architecture**
**Historical Significance**:
She is one of the **few documented female rulers of medieval India**
Her story shows that **women could hold significant political power**, though such cases were rare
She demonstrates that **strong administration required both alliances and decisive action**
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THE CHĀLUKYAS DYNASTY
Overview and Time Period
**General Time Frame**: This dynasty was active and important during the period covered by this chapter, though much of their power was challenged and eventually displaced.
**Geographic Base**: The **Deccan** region (peninsular India)
Early Period: The Pallava-Chālukya Struggle
**Timeline**: **6th to 8th centuries**
**Nature of Conflict**:
The Chālukyas engaged in a prolonged struggle with the **Pallavas** (another dynasty in south India)
This was not a single war but a **series of conflicts over several centuries**
Both dynasties competed for **control of Deccan territories and resources**
**Key Point About Chālukyas**:
In the **mid-8th century**, **Dantidurga of the Rāṣhṭrakūṭas overthrew the Chālukyas**
This **ended their first major period of dominance**
However, the Chālukya dynasty would **reappear and regain power later** (not detailed in this chapter, but important for understanding continuity)
Pulakeśhin II: The Famous Chālukya Ruler
**Significance in Harṣha's Time**:
When Harṣhavardhana attempted to **expand his empire southward beyond the Narmada**, he was **halted by Pulakeśhin II of the Chālukya dynasty**
Pulakeśhin II was the **powerful Chālukya ruler** who successfully **resisted northern expansion**
This shows the **Chālukyas' military strength** even when facing powerful rulers like Harṣha
**Military Capability**:
Pulakeśhin II **maintained a powerful army**
He successfully **defended Chālukya territories** against expansion attempts from the north
He established the **Chālukyas as a major power** in the Deccan
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THE PALLAVAS DYNASTY
Geographic Location and Time Period
**Location**: **South India** — centered in the Tamil region
**Time Period of Greatest Power**: **6th to 8th centuries** (engaged in the Pallava-Chālukya struggle with the Chālukyas)
Architectural Contributions: The Shore Temple
**Location**: **Māmallapuram** (also known as Mahabalipuram) on the coast of south India
**Creator**: **Narasimhavarman II** of the Pallava dynasty
**What is Unique**:
This is called the **Shore Temple** because it is located by the sea
The Pallavas were famous for **carving entire temples out of rock** at Māmallapuram
This represents a **unique approach to temple building** — rather than constructing temples, they **sculpted them from existing rock formations**
This required **exceptional engineering skills and artistic vision**
**Architectural Style**:
The temple shows **Pallava architectural style**, which is distinct from northern Indian styles
It reflects **Tamil cultural and religious traditions**
The intricate carvings and design show **the sophistication of south Indian sculpture**
**Historical Importance**:
Māmallapuram became a **major center of religious pilgrimage**
The temples there remain **important examples of Indian rock-cut architecture**
They demonstrate the **creative abilities and resources of southern dynasties**
Pallava Struggles
**With the Chālukyas**:
The Pallavas engaged in a **long series of conflicts with the Chālukyas**
This **6th to 8th century struggle** was a major feature of southern Indian politics
Neither side achieved permanent dominance, but both remained powerful
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THE PĀLA DYNASTY'S NORTHERN AND EASTERN DOMINANCE
(Additional details supplementing the earlier section)
Connection to Buddhist Learning Centers
**Continued Patronage**:
The Pālas not only founded new universities but **maintained and expanded existing ones**
**Nālandā** university (dating from earlier Gupta times) continued to flourish under Pāla patronage
Multiple universities meant **multiple centers of excellence** across eastern India
This created a **network of learning institutions** throughout their territories
Influence on Buddhist Thought
**Mahāyāna Buddhism**:
The Pālas were great patrons of **Mahāyāna Buddhism** — a major branch emphasizing the bodhisattva ideal (enlightened beings helping others)
This form of Buddhism **spread throughout Asia** with Pāla support
The **translation of texts into other languages** by Pāla-supported scholars helped **spread Buddhist philosophy** to Tibet, China, and Southeast Asia
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INDIAN CITIES AND URBAN CENTERS
Kannauj: The Prized City
**Strategic Importance**:
Located on **River Ganga** in the Gangetic plains
The **cultural and political heart** of north India
Home to **great poets, scholars, and kings**
Its possession determined the **balance of power in north India**
**Xuanzang's Description**:
A **beautiful and prosperous city**
Evidence of **wealth, trade, and cultural sophistication**
Center of **royal court activity and patronage of arts**
Prayāga: The Sacred Assembly Site
**Location**: At the **confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers** in present-day Prayagraj
**Religious Significance**:
One of the **most sacred sites in Hinduism**
The confluence was believed to have **special spiritual power**
**Harṣha's Assembly**:
Every **five years**, Harṣha held a **grand assembly at Prayāga**
He **performed sacred Hindu rituals**
He **distributed wealth generously** to **Buddhists, Brahmins, and the poor**
This demonstrated **royal piety and generosity**
Other Important Cities
**Ujjayinī**:
Mentioned as a **capital city** at various times
Home of the **prince in Kādambarī novel**
A center of **culture and learning**
**Mānyakheṭa** (modern Malkheda):
**Capital of the Rāṣhṭrakūṭas**
A center of **power and administration**
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FOREIGN INVASIONS AND INTERACTIONS
Arab Invasions and Interactions
**Initial Arab Naval Attack**:
**637 CE**: The **first Arab naval attack was repulsed at Thana** (a coastal city)
This shows that **Arab forces attempted to penetrate Indian defenses** from the sea
Indian forces successfully **defended against this early invasion attempt**
**Conquest of Sindh**:
**712 CE**: **Arabs conquered Sindh** after several attempts
This marked the **first successful Arab territorial conquest in India**
Sindh is in the **northwest** of the subcontinent
This conquest opened a new phase of **Arab-Indian interaction and trade**
**Gurjara-Pratīhāra Response**:
The **Gurjara-Pratīhāras became famous for pushing back Arab invasions** into northwest India
They **prevented Arab expansion** beyond Sindh for centuries
This military role made them **defenders of northern India** against foreign invasions
Significance of These Invasions
**Early contact**: These invasions/interactions marked the **beginning of regular Arab presence in India**
**Trade and cultural exchange**: Along with military conflict came **trade relationships and cultural interactions**
**Long-term impact**: Eventually led to **Muslim settlement in India** and the **rise of Indo-Islamic civilization**
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BHAKTI TRADITION IN SOUTH INDIA
Beginning of the Movement
**Start Date**: **650 CE** — the **start of the Bhakti tradition in south India**
**Definition**: Bhakti means **devotion** — a movement emphasizing personal, emotional devotion to a deity
**Origin Region**: **South India**, particularly in Tamil-speaking regions
**Key Features**:
Movement away from **ritual-heavy practices** toward **personal devotion**
Emphasis on **emotional connection to God**
Often celebrated through **poetry, music, and dance**
**Saints and poets** played major roles in spreading Bhakti ideas
Gradually influenced **north India** as well
Historical Importance
Represented a **shift in how people practiced religion**
Gave **greater voice to ordinary people** who could practice devotion without elaborate rituals or Brahmin intermediaries
Led to creation of **great poetry and music** in regional languages
Eventually became a **major movement across India**
Still influences **Indian religious practice today**
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RISE OF THE CHOLAS
Time of Emergence
**9th Century**: The **Cholas emerge as a dominant power**
**Geographic Base**: **South India**, particularly in the Tamil region
**Significance**: After the Pallava-Chālukya struggles, the **Cholas rose to become major players** in south Indian politics
**Later Importance**: The Cholas would become even more prominent in later centuries (to be studied in subsequent chapters)
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TIMELINE SUMMARY
| Date | Event |
|------|-------|
| 600 CE | Approximate end of Gupta Empire |
| 606 CE | Harṣhavardhana's rule begins at Kannauj |
| 630-644 CE | Xuanzang's travels in India |
| 637 CE | First Arab naval attack repulsed at Thana |
| 650 CE | Start of Bhakti tradition in south India |
| 6th-8th centuries | Pallava-Chālukya struggle in south India |
| Mid-8th century | Rise of Rāṣhṭrakūṭas under Dantidurga |
| Mid-8th century | Rise of Kārkoṭa dynasty in Kashmir |
| Mid-8th century | Rise of Gurjara-Pratīhāras under Nāgabhaṭa I |
| 712 CE | Arabs conquer Sindh after several attempts |
| 750 CE | Rise of Pāla dynasty under Gopāla |
| Late 8th century | Dharmapāla founds Vikramaśhilā |
| 8th-9th centuries | Tripartite Struggle over Kannauj |
| 9th century | King Bhoja rules Gurjara-Pratīhāras |
| 9th century | Amoghavar