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Empires and Kingdoms: 6th to 10th Centuries

NCERT Class 7 · Social Science Based on NCERT Class 7 Social Science textbook · Free CBSE study kit

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Chapter Notes

Overview
This chapter explores the political, cultural, and religious developments in India from the end of the Gupta era (about 600 CE) to about 1200 CE, a period often called 'early medieval'. It covers the rise and fall of several powerful regional kingdoms like the Pushyabhutis (Harsha), Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas, Pallavas, Pandyas, Cheras, and Cholas, as well as the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj. The one big idea a student must walk away with is that after the decline of large empires, India saw the emergence of strong regional kingdoms that fostered vibrant art, literature, trade, and religious movements like Bhakti, while also facing foreign invasions like those of the Hunas and Arabs.
Key Concepts (48)
Tripartite Struggle
A long, indecisive conflict between three powerful dynasties—the Palas (east), the Gurjara-Pratiharas (west), and the Rashtrakutas (Deccan)—for control over Kannauj during the 8th and 9th centuries.
e.g. Just like three strong teams fighting endlessly for the same trophy without any one winning permanently, these three kingdoms repeatedly warred over Kannauj.
Samanta
A subordinate ruler or vassal who led armies, managed local administration, and paid tribute to the king, but could become powerful enough to overthrow the overlord if central authority weakened.
e.g. The Rashtrakutas were originally samantas under the Chalukyas before they overthrew them and became the dominant power in the Deccan.
Bhakti Movement
A widespread religious and social movement from the 6th century onward, emphasizing personal devotion (bhakti) to a deity, cutting across gender and social divisions, and expressed through poetry in regional languages.
e.g. The Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) in Tamil Nadu composed devotional songs that people of all castes could sing together.
Monolithic
A structure carved from a single large rock or stone, rather than built by assembling separate pieces.
e.g. The Kailashanatha temple at Ellora is a monolithic temple—it was carved out of a hillside, not constructed brick by brick.
Dvarapandita
A 'scholar gatekeeper' at the Vikramashila university who tested students before allowing them entry into the college.
e.g. Imagine a very strict teacher at the school gate who asks you tough questions before letting you enter the classroom—that was a dvarapandita.
Jati
A hereditary social group based on occupation or region, within which people typically married; the system was flexible and varied across regions.
e.g. The Kayasthas, originally scribes from different varnas, became a distinct jati by the 10th century, marrying only within their group.
Varna
The four broad social categories in ancient Indian society: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (labourers).
e.g. Some rulers like the Palas and Kakatiyas were originally considered Shudras but later regarded as Kshatriyas as they gained power.
Aspriśhya
A Sanskrit term meaning 'not to be touched', used in texts to refer to communities considered 'impure' and subjected to discrimination.
e.g. Xuanzang noted that butchers, fishers, and scavengers lived outside the city walls in separate suburbs, reflecting the practice of untouchability.
Rajatarangini
A 12th-century Sanskrit epic poem by Kalhana that narrates the history of Kashmir's ruling dynasties, emphasizing ethical lessons and using inscriptions and earlier works as sources.
e.g. Kalhana's Rajatarangini is like a history book that also tells you what a good king should or should not do.
Brahmasphutasiddhanta
A major work by the mathematician and astronomer Brahmagupta (born 598 CE), which introduced rules for arithmetic with zero, negative numbers, and fractions, and pioneered algebra.
e.g. The rules you use in class for adding and subtracting negative numbers were first written down by Brahmagupta in this book.
Huna
A branch of the nomadic Huns from Central Asia who invaded India in the 5th-6th centuries, weakened the Gupta Empire, but were eventually defeated and assimilated into Indian society.
e.g. The Hunas were like a fierce storm that damaged the Gupta empire but later settled down and became part of Indian villages and armies.
Pallava
A dynasty that ruled from Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu, reaching its peak in the 7th century under Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I, known for rock-cut temples at Mamallapuram and maritime trade.
e.g. The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram, built by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman II, is a famous example of their architectural skill.
Chalukya
A dynasty founded by Pulakeshin I in the mid-6th century, with capital at Vatapi (Badami, Karnataka); Pulakeshin II stopped Harsha's southward expansion and was a great patron of art.
e.g. The Meguti temple at Aihole has an inscription praising Pulakeshin II's victories, including over Harsha.
Rashtrakuta
A dynasty that overthrew the Chalukyas in the mid-8th century, ruled from Manyakheta (Karnataka), and built the Kailashanatha temple at Ellora; known for patronizing Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
e.g. King Amoghavarsha I, a Rashtrakuta ruler, was a poet and patron of Jainism but also supported Hindu temples.
Pala
A dynasty founded by Gopala in 750 CE in Bengal, known for patronizing Mahayana Buddhism and founding universities like Vikramashila and Somapura.
e.g. Dharmapala, a Pala king, founded Vikramashila university which had 6 colleges and nearly 3,000 scholars.
Gurjara-Pratihara
A dynasty founded by Nagabhata I in the mid-8th century, originating from western India, known for pushing back Arab invasions and ruling much of north India under King Bhoja.
e.g. King Bhoja, a Pratihara ruler, was a devotee of Vishnu and issued coins showing Varaha, an avatar of Vishnu.
Chola
A dynasty reborn under Vijayalaya in the 9th century, with capital at Thanjavur; they built a large empire with a powerful navy, efficient administration, and grand temples like the Brihadishvara temple.
e.g. The Chola bronze sculpture of Nataraja (Shiva as Lord of Dance) is world-famous for its artistic beauty.
Alvar
A group of 12 Tamil poet-saints (including one woman, Andal) from the 6th century onward, who were devotees of Vishnu and composed devotional poetry that spread the Bhakti movement.
e.g. Andal, the only female Alvar, wrote beautiful poems expressing her love for Lord Vishnu.
Nayanar
A group of 63 Tamil poet-saints (including three women) from the 6th century onward, who were devotees of Shiva and composed devotional poetry that spread the Bhakti movement.
e.g. Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a female Nayanar, is shown in statues as a devotee of Shiva.
Vikramashila
A major Buddhist monastery and university founded by Dharmapala (Pala king) in the late 8th century on the banks of the Ganga, with 6 colleges, 3,000 scholars, and a selective admission process.
e.g. Vikramashila was especially known for its ties with Tibet and for shaping Tibetan Buddhism.
Nalanda
A famous ancient Buddhist university in Bihar that continued to be patronized by rulers like Harsha and the Palas, attracting students from across Asia.
e.g. Xuanzang studied at Nalanda and later took back 600 manuscripts to China.
Xuanzang
A Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who travelled to India between 630 and 644 CE, visited Harsha's court, and left a detailed travelogue that is a major historical source for this period.
e.g. Xuanzang described Kannauj as a beautiful city and Harsha as a just ruler who held assemblies every five years at Prayaga.
Harshavardhana
A ruler of the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty who ascended the throne in 606 CE at Kannauj, expanded his empire over north and eastern India, patronized scholars like Bana, and was a poet and dramatist.
e.g. Harsha wrote three plays in Sanskrit and held a grand assembly at Kannauj in honour of Xuanzang.
Kadambari
A 7th-century Sanskrit novel by Bana (Banasbhatta), considered one of the world's first novels, with a complex plot involving love across different births and divine worlds.
e.g. The story of Kadambari is like a fantasy romance where a prince and a celestial being fall in love across multiple lifetimes.
Kalhana
A 12th-century Kashmiri scholar and poet who wrote the Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir's rulers, emphasizing ethical values and using inscriptions and earlier works as sources.
e.g. Kalhana said a historian should be 'free from love or hatred' like a judge, which means being unbiased.
Brahmagupta
A mathematician and astronomer born in 598 CE in Bhillamala, who wrote the Brahmasphutasiddhanta, introducing rules for zero, negative numbers, and algebra.
e.g. Brahmagupta's work was translated into Persian and Latin, influencing mathematics in the Arab world and Europe.
Adi Shankaracharya
An 8th-century scholar and teacher of Advaita Vedanta philosophy, who established four mathas (monasteries) at Badrinath, Puri, Dwarka, and Sringeri, and taught that Brahman is the ultimate reality and the world is maya (illusion).
e.g. Shankaracharya chose four corners of India for his mathas to spread his teachings across the entire subcontinent.
Kailashanatha Temple
A magnificent rock-cut temple at Ellora (Maharashtra), built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I, carved out of a hillside as a single monolithic structure.
e.g. The Kailashanatha temple is not built but carved—like a giant sculpture from top to bottom.
Mamallapuram
A port city (also called Mahabalipuram) on the east coast of Tamil Nadu, known for Pallava rock-cut temples and monolithic structures, and for trade with Southeast Asia.
e.g. The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram is a famous Pallava monument that stands by the sea.
Prayaga
The ancient name for Prayagraj, the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, where Harsha held a grand assembly every five years, giving away wealth to Buddhists, Brahmins, and the poor.
e.g. Harsha's assembly at Prayaga was like a big fair where the king distributed gifts to everyone.
Kannauj
An ancient city (Kanyakubja) on the Ganga in Uttar Pradesh, which became the capital of Harsha and the centre of the Tripartite Struggle between the Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas.
e.g. Kannauj was so strategically important that three powerful dynasties fought over it for two centuries.
Bana (Banasbhatta)
A court poet of Harsha who wrote the Kadambari (one of the world's first novels) and the Harshacharita (a biography of Harsha).
e.g. Bana's Harshacharita gives us details about Harsha's life and the society of that time.
Pulakeshin II
A Chalukya king who stopped Harsha's southward expansion and expanded the Chalukya kingdom; he was defeated by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I.
e.g. Pulakeshin II's victory over Harsha is recorded in the Meguti temple inscription at Aihole.
Narasimhavarman I
A Pallava king also known as 'Mamalla' (wrestler), who defeated Pulakeshin II and captured Badami, and sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka.
e.g. Mamallapuram is named after Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla).
Amoghavarsha I
A Rashtrakuta king who ruled for 64 years, was a poet, patron of Jainism and Hinduism, and is remembered by 'Nrupatunga Road' in Bengaluru.
e.g. Amoghavarsha was called 'Nripatunga' meaning 'peak of kings'.
Dharmapala
A Pala king who expanded the Pala empire and founded the Vikramashila university; he was a patron of Mahayana Buddhism but also respected other faiths.
e.g. Dharmapala's successors, though Buddhist patrons, were sometimes devotees of Shiva.
King Bhoja (Mihira)
A celebrated Gurjara-Pratihara ruler of the 9th century, a devotee of Vishnu, who built an empire from Punjab to Kannauj.
e.g. King Bhoja was also called 'Mihira' (Sun) and 'Adi Varaha' (boar avatar of Vishnu).
Al-Masudi
A 10th-century Arab historian and traveller from Baghdad who praised a Rashtrakuta ruler for respecting Muslims and allowing mosques in his kingdom.
e.g. Al-Masudi's account shows that the Rashtrakutas were tolerant and protected Islam in their realm.
Queen Didda
A 10th-century queen of Kashmir who consolidated power through alliances and ruthlessly eliminated rivals, including her own grandsons; she built towns and temples.
e.g. Queen Didda's story from Kalhana's Rajatarangini shows both her strength and her cruelty.
Tribhuvana Mahadevi I
A 9th-century queen of the Bhauma-Kara dynasty in Odisha, who ruled as a supreme sovereign, suppressed rebellions, and patronized Hindu and Buddhist institutions.
e.g. She used the title 'Paramabhattarika Maharajadhiraja' meaning 'supreme sovereign empress'.
Virahanka-Fibonacci sequence
A mathematical sequence first established by the scholar Virahanka during this period, which you learn about in Grade 7 Mathematics.
e.g. The sequence where each number is the sum of the two preceding ones (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8...) was first described by Virahanka.
Mahavira (Jain scholar)
A Jain mathematician at the court of Amoghavarsha I who authored the first work of mathematics independent of astronomy.
e.g. This Mahavira is different from the great Jain teacher who lived over a thousand years earlier.
Kashmir Shaivism
A school of thought that produced great scholars like Abhinavagupta, whose works on philosophy, poetry, and arts influenced all of India.
e.g. Kashmir was a major centre for Sanskrit learning and philosophy during this period.
Tantric schools
Schools of thought that emerged around the 6th century, emphasizing rituals, meditation, mantras, and worship of powerful deities, especially Shakti.
e.g. Tantric ideas influenced Buddhism in eastern India under the Palas.
Purana
Ancient texts with elaborate mythology and sacred geography that helped integrate local deities into pan-Indian cults of Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, and devis.
e.g. The Puranas helped make local village gods part of the larger Hindu tradition.
Land grant system
A system where kings, chiefs, and vassals gave land to individuals, communities, and religious establishments, creating a new class of landholders and expanding agriculture.
e.g. Many land grants were given to bring uncultivated land under farming, and inscriptions record donations of wells and tanks.
Sabhā
A village assembly in south India, as seen in Chola inscriptions at Uttaramerur, which had a detailed selection process for members, showing democratic traditions dating back 1,500 years.
e.g. The Uttaramerur inscription describes how members of the village sabha were chosen by lottery.
Merchant guilds
Associations of traders, artisans, and moneylenders that played a significant role in trade, supported religious activities, and had their own structures detailed in inscriptions.
e.g. In south India, two major merchant guilds operated—one for coastal trade and another for inter-regional trade.
How It Works
The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj
  1. After Harsha's death in 647 CE, north India saw political turmoil.
  2. Kannauj became the centre of a long conflict between three dynasties: the Palas (east), the Gurjara-Pratiharas (west), and the Rashtrakutas (Deccan).
  3. During the 8th and 9th centuries, these three powers repeatedly warred against each other.
  4. The outcomes fluctuated, and no lasting victor emerged from the struggle.
💡 Students often think one dynasty won the Tripartite Struggle. In fact, it was indecisive—no one permanently controlled Kannauj.
How a Samanta Could Become an Overlord
  1. A samanta (subordinate ruler) was appointed by the king to lead armies and manage local administration.
  2. The samanta paid tribute and remained loyal as long as the central authority was strong.
  3. If the empire's central authority weakened, the samanta's loyalty became fragile.
  4. Some samantas grew powerful enough to overthrow their overlord and establish their own dynasty.
  5. Example: The Rashtrakutas were originally samantas under the Chalukyas before they overthrew them.
💡 Students forget that samantas were not always loyal—they could rebel and become kings themselves.
Spread of the Bhakti Movement
  1. From the 6th century onward, two groups of Tamil poet-saints emerged: the 12 Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and the 63 Nayanars (devotees of Shiva).
  2. They composed devotional poetry in Tamil, emphasizing a direct personal relationship with the divine.
  3. Their message cut across gender and social divisions, including Shudras and women.
  4. The movement spread to other parts of India, with bhakti saints emerging from diverse backgrounds.
  5. They composed in regional languages, making devotion accessible to common people.
  6. The movement reshaped Indian society and literature, and its impact continues today.
💡 Students often think the Bhakti Movement was a single organized movement. It was actually a widespread trend with many local saints and poets.
How a Professional Group Became a Jati (Example of Kayasthas)
  1. The Kayasthas were initially a professional group of scribes and clerks, open to people from different varnas.
  2. In the 10th century, they began to marry mainly within their group.
  3. In Bengal, some Brahmana surnames (like Vasu, Ghosha, Datta, Dama) became associated with Kayasthas.
  4. This fusion of Brahmana and non-Brahmana families led to the formation of a distinct Kayastha jati.
💡 Students think jatis were fixed forever. This example shows they could form and change over time.
Administration of a Regional Kingdom (e.g., Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas)
  1. Kings ruled their core regions directly.
  2. Other regions were governed through subordinate rulers called samantas.
  3. Directly controlled territories were divided into provinces (bhuktis or rashtras), districts (mandalas), and villages.
  4. Specific officials were appointed at every level.
  5. Villages were overseen by headmen, accountants, and local committees, and remained largely self-governed.
  6. In south India, village assemblies (sabhas) emerged with detailed selection processes.
💡 Students often think all villages were directly ruled by the king. In fact, villages had a lot of self-government.
How Foreign Invaders (Hunas) Were Assimilated into Indian Society
  1. The Hunas, a nomadic people from Central Asia, invaded India in the 5th-6th centuries.
  2. They weakened the Gupta Empire but were defeated by the Aulikara kings of Mandsaur.
  3. After their defeat, Huna power in India ended by the 7th century.
  4. The Hunas gradually assimilated into Indian society.
  5. Many served as soldiers or took up roles in local administration.
  6. One inscription records a Huna serving on a temple's administration council.
💡 Students think invaders were always expelled. The Hunas actually settled and became part of Indian society.
Exam Traps — Don't Make These Mistakes
⚠ Confusing Harsha's Religion
✗ Harsha was a Buddhist king.
→ Inscriptions depict Harsha as a devotee of Shiva, though other sources say he was deeply attached to Buddhism. He respected all schools of thought. He was not exclusively Buddhist.
✓ Harsha was a devotee of Shiva according to inscriptions, but also deeply attached to Buddhism, and he respected all schools of thought.
⚠ Thinking the Tripartite Struggle Had a Winner
✗ The Gurjara-Pratiharas won the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj.
→ The chapter clearly states the struggle was 'indecisive' with 'fluctuating outcomes and no lasting victor'. No single dynasty permanently controlled Kannauj.
✓ The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj was a long, indecisive conflict with no lasting victor; the three powers warred repeatedly but none won permanently.
⚠ Calling the Kailashanatha Temple 'Built' Instead of 'Carved'
✗ The Kailashanatha temple was built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.
→ The chapter emphasizes it is 'not a construction but a gigantic sculpture'—it was carved out of a hillside, not built with separate materials. It is monolithic (single rock).
✓ The Kailashanatha temple at Ellora was carved out of a hillside as a monolithic rock-cut temple by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.
⚠ Confusing the Two Mahaviras
✗ Mahavira was a Jain mathematician at the Rashtrakuta court.
→ The chapter specifies that this Mahavira is 'not to be confused with Mahavira, the great Jain teacher who lived over a millennium earlier'. The mathematician Mahavira lived in the 9th century at Amoghavarsha's court.
✓ Mahavira was a Jain scholar and mathematician at the court of the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I, who authored the first work of mathematics independent of astronomy.
⚠ Thinking the Bhakti Movement Started in North India
✗ The Bhakti Movement began in North India.
→ The chapter states 'the initial spark came from the South', specifically from the Alvars and Nayanars in Tamil Nadu in the 6th century.
✓ The Bhakti Movement initially sparked in South India with the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) in the 6th century.
⚠ Assuming All Pala Kings Were Buddhist
✗ All Pala kings were Buddhists.
→ While Dharmapala patronized Buddhist institutions, several of his successors, though still patronizing Buddhist institutions, were said to be devotees of Shiva. The chapter emphasizes religious fluidity.
✓ The Pala kings, especially Dharmapala, patronized Buddhism, but later Pala rulers were also devotees of Shiva, showing religious fluidity.
Compare & Contrast
Their relationship and territorial control
Harshavardhana
Pulakeshin II
Harsha ruled north of the Vindhyas and tried to expand southward, but Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty stopped him at the Narmada river. They were contemporaries and rivals.
Deity worshipped
Alvars
Nayanars
Alvars were 12 Tamil poet-saints who were devotees of Vishnu (including one woman, Andal), while Nayanars were 63 Tamil poet-saints who were devotees of Shiva (including three women).
Time period and purpose of travel to India
Faxian (5th century)
Xuanzang (7th century)
Faxian visited India during the Gupta era (5th century) and left an account of that period, while Xuanzang visited two centuries later (630-644 CE) during Harsha's time and left a detailed travelogue about the post-Gupta kingdoms.
Geographical location and religious patronage
Pala dynasty
Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty
The Palas ruled eastern India (Bengal/Bihar) and were great patrons of Mahayana Buddhism (founding Vikramashila), while the Gurjara-Pratiharas ruled western India (Gujarat/Rajasthan) and were devotees of Vishnu (King Bhoja).
Exam Focus
Marks pattern: 2 MCQs (1 mark each), 1 SA (3 marks), 1 LA (5 marks) — total 10 marks typically
Most asked: Harshavardhana and his administration · The Tripartite Struggle (Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas) · Xuanzang's travelogue as a historical source · The Bhakti Movement (Alvars and Nayanars) · Contributions of Brahmagupta to mathematics · Pallava and Chalukya architecture (Mamallapuram, Kailashanatha temple) · Chola administration and village assemblies (Uttaramerur)
Don't skip: 5-mark question comparing Harsha and Pulakeshin II or describing the Tripartite Struggle; 3-mark question on the Bhakti Movement or contributions of Brahmagupta; 1-mark MCQs on key terms like 'samanta', 'monolithic', 'dvarapandita'
One-Line Revision (read aloud before the exam)
  1. Harshavardhana ruled from Kannauj from 606 CE, was a poet and dramatist, and patronized scholars like Bana.
  2. Xuanzang, a Chinese pilgrim, travelled to India between 630 and 644 CE and left a detailed travelogue of Harsha's kingdom.
  3. The Tripartite Struggle was an indecisive conflict between the Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas for control of Kannauj.
  4. The Pala dynasty, founded by Gopala in 750 CE, patronized Mahayana Buddhism and founded Vikramashila university.
  5. The Gurjara-Pratihara king Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and pushed back Arab invasions.
  6. The Rashtrakuta king Krishna I built the monolithic Kailashanatha temple at Ellora.
  7. The Chalukya king Pulakeshin II stopped Harsha's southward expansion and was defeated by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I.
  8. The Pallavas built rock-cut temples at Mamallapuram and promoted trade with Southeast Asia.
  9. The Bhakti Movement began in South India with the Alvars (Vishnu devotees) and Nayanars (Shiva devotees).
  10. Brahmagupta, born in 598 CE, wrote the Brahmasphutasiddhanta and introduced rules for zero and negative numbers.
  11. Samantas were subordinate rulers who could become powerful enough to overthrow their overlords.
  12. The Cholas, reborn under Vijayalaya in the 9th century, built a large empire with a powerful navy and efficient village administration.
  13. The Hunas invaded India in the 5th-6th centuries but were defeated and assimilated into Indian society.
  14. Kalhana's Rajatarangini is a 12th-century history of Kashmir that emphasizes ethical lessons.
  15. Adi Shankaracharya established four mathas at Badrinath, Puri, Dwarka, and Sringeri to spread Advaita Vedanta.

MCQs — 10 Questions with Answers

Q1. In which city did Harṣhavardhana establish his capital?

  • A. Kannauj ✓
  • B. Pataliputra
  • C. Ujjayinī
  • D. Mathura

Answer: A — Harṣhavardhana ruled from Kannauj (ancient Kānyakubja) in present-day Uttar Pradesh, not Pataliputra (Gupta capital) or other cities.

Q2. What period of time did Xuanzang spend travelling in India?

  • A. 615–630 CE
  • B. 630–644 CE ✓
  • C. 645–660 CE
  • D. 700–720 CE

Answer: B — Xuanzang travelled across India and the subcontinent between 630 and 644 CE, visiting Buddhist sites and collecting Sanskrit manuscripts.

Q3. Which dynasty ruled eastern India after Harṣha's death?

  • A. Varman dynasty
  • B. Chālukya dynasty
  • C. Pāla dynasty ✓
  • D. Rāṣhṭrakūṭa dynasty

Answer: C — The Pāla dynasty, founded in 750 CE by Gopāla, ruled over much of eastern India after Harṣha's death in 647 CE.

Q4. Kādambarī is significant because it is considered—

  • A. The first Sanskrit epic poem
  • B. One of the world's first novels ✓
  • C. A historical biography of Harṣha
  • D. A Buddhist scripture translated from Chinese

Answer: B — Kādambarī, written by Bāṇabhaṭṭa and completed by his son, is regarded as one of the world's first novels with an elaborate complex plot.

Q5. Why did the three powers—Pālas, Gurjara-Pratīhāras, and Rāṣhṭrakūṭas—fight over Kannauj for centuries?

  • A. Because it was the largest city in India
  • B. Because it controlled important trade routes and was a centre of power ✓
  • C. Because Harṣha's treasure was hidden there
  • D. Because only one dynasty could rule northern India

Answer: B — Kannauj's location on the River Ganga made it a prosperous city controlling trade routes and political influence, making it attractive to all three powers.

Q6. How did Harṣhavardhana show respect for different beliefs?

  • A. He only allowed Buddhism in his kingdom
  • B. He prevented all religious practices except Hinduism
  • C. He gave wealth to Buddhists, Brahmins, and the poor, and showed respect for all schools of thought ✓
  • D. He forced all subjects to convert to his personal religion

Answer: C — Harṣha was depicted as a devotee of Śhiva but was also deeply attached to Buddhism and showed respect for all schools of thought and belief.

Q7. What can we infer about Indian society during 600–1000 CE based on Xuanzang's travels?

  • A. India had no trade with other countries
  • B. Buddhist monasteries were only prayer places with no educational role
  • C. India had active trade networks, multiple religious centres, and a diverse political structure across regions ✓
  • D. North India was the only developed region in the subcontinent

Answer: C — Xuanzang's detailed account describes prosperous cities, thriving Buddhist centres of learning, trade networks, and multiple political kingdoms across the subcontinent.

Q8. How does the period after Gupta decline (600–1000 CE) compare to the Gupta period in terms of political structure?

  • A. Both had powerful centralised empires controlling most of India
  • B. The Gupta period had a unified empire while the later period had multiple regional kingdoms with no single supreme power ✓
  • C. The later period was entirely lawless and chaotic with no organised governments
  • D. Both periods were marked by the Tripartite Struggle

Answer: B — The Gupta Era featured a large unified empire, while 600–1000 CE saw multiple strong but independent regional kingdoms competing for power without empire-wide unity.

Q9. Which feature of Harṣhavardhana's rule suggests he was influenced by ancient Indian traditions of kingship?

  • A. His collection of 600 Buddhist manuscripts
  • B. His holding of assemblies every five years where he gave wealth to different communities and performed sacred rites ✓
  • C. His marriage alliances with western kingdoms
  • D. His maintenance of diplomatic relations with China

Answer: B — The five-yearly assembly at Prayāga where Harṣha performed sacred rites and distributed wealth echoes similar ceremonies in ancient Indian kingship traditions.

Q10. Why is Xuanzang's travelogue considered more valuable than just a personal travel diary for historians?

  • A. Because it describes only Buddhist temples and nothing else
  • B. Because it contains detailed records of politics, diplomacy, culture, and religion across multiple kingdoms, serving as a major historical source ✓
  • C. Because it was written in Chinese rather than Sanskrit
  • D. Because it proved that Harṣha was a weak ruler

Answer: B — Xuanzang's account recorded important details about politics, diplomacy, culture, and religion across the kingdoms he crossed, making it a valuable historical source for this period.

Flashcards

In which year did Harṣhavardhana begin his rule at Kannauj?

Harṣhavardhana began his rule in 606 CE at Kannauj.

Who was Xuanzang and why did he travel to India?

Xuanzang was a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who travelled to India between 630–644 CE to visit Buddhist sites, learn doctrines, and collect Sanskrit manuscripts.

Name the three kingdoms involved in the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj.

The Pālas from the east, Gurjara-Pratīhāras from the west, and Rāṣhṭrakūṭas from the Deccan fought in the Tripartite Struggle.

What was the Pāla dynasty known for?

The Pāla dynasty, founded in 750 CE, ruled eastern India and was famous for patronising Mahāyāna Buddhism and founding great monasteries like Vikramaśhilā and Somapura.

What literary work did Bāṇabhaṭṭa write for Harṣha?

Bāṇabhaṭṭa wrote the Harṣhacharita, a biography of Harṣhavardhana, and also composed Kādambarī, one of the world's first novels.

Why was Kannauj important during this period?

Kannauj was a prosperous city on the River Ganga that became a centre of political power and attracted scholars, poets, and ambitious rulers, making it a prize in the Tripartite Struggle.

What was the 5-year ceremony that Harṣha held at Prayāga?

Harṣha held an assembly every five years at Prayāga where, after performing sacred rites, he gave away wealth to Buddhists, Brahmins, and the poor.

Which Chālukya king checked Harṣha's southern expansion?

Pulakeśhin II of the Chālukya dynasty held back Harṣha's attempt to extend his empire southward beyond the Narmada.

What sources do historians use to study this period besides inscriptions?

Historians use travelogues from Chinese pilgrims like Xuanzang, copper plate inscriptions, literary works, and coins as sources for this period.

When did the Pāla dynasty begin and who was its founder?

The Pāla dynasty began in 750 CE when Gopāla was chosen by the people to restore stability in the Bengal region.

Important Board Questions

Who was Harṣhavardhana and from which city did he rule? [1 mark]

Name the ruler and identify Kannauj as his capital city; mention the year he began his rule (606 CE).

Why did Xuanzang travel to India? Mention two main reasons. [2 marks]

He came to visit sacred Buddhist sites and learn doctrines from teachers; he also collected and brought back Sanskrit Buddhist manuscripts to China.

Explain why Kannauj became the centre of the Tripartite Struggle. What advantages did it offer to the three warring dynasties? [3 marks]

Kannauj was located on the River Ganga (trade routes), was a prosperous and powerful city, and controlled northern India; the three parties were Pālas (east), Gurjara-Pratīhāras (west), and Rāṣhṭrakūṭas (Deccan).

Describe the contributions of the Pāla dynasty to Indian culture and learning. How did they support Buddhism and education? [5 marks]

Pāla dynasty founded 750 CE by Gopāla; patronised Mahāyāna Buddhism; established great monasteries like Vikramaśhilā and Somapura which worked as universities; continued support for Nālandā; attracted scholars and students from across and beyond India through manuscripts, translations, and teaching.

Assertion-Reason Questions for Empires and Kingdoms: 6th to 10th Centuries

Q1. Assertion (A):

Harṣhavardhana was a devotee of Śhiva and rejected all other religious traditions in India.

Reason (R):

The inscriptions found during his reign explicitly mention his exclusive devotion to one deity only.

Answer: D — A is false but R is true — Both the assertion and reason are false. The text states that while inscriptions depict him as a devotee of Śhiva, 'he was also deeply attached to Buddhism, while showing respect for all schools of thought and belief.' This indicates religious pluralism, not exclusivity. Therefore, the assertion that he rejected other traditions is false, and the reason's claim of exclusive devotion is also contradicted by the evidence.

Q2. Assertion (A):

Xuanzang's travelogue is considered a major source of information for historians studying the period between 630–644 CE.

Reason (R):

He recorded important details about politics, diplomacy, culture and religion in the kingdoms he visited during his journey through India.

Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A — Both the assertion and reason are true, and the reason directly explains why the travelogue is valuable to historians. The text explicitly states it is 'a major source of information for historians of this period' because of the comprehensive nature of his records about multiple aspects of the kingdoms he encountered.

Q3. Assertion (A):

The literary works composed by Harṣhavardhana, such as his Sanskrit plays, are primarily valuable as sources for understanding the administrative and military organization of his empire.

Reason (R):

These plays focus on themes of love stories, courtly life, sacrifice and ethical values rather than administrative systems.

Answer: D — A is false but R is true — The assertion is false, but the reason is true. The text clearly states that historians 'use such literature to extract interesting details about culture and society' from broader themes like governance, technology, and social diversity—but the plays themselves focus on literary and courtly themes, not administrative details specifically. The reason correctly identifies the content of the plays, which contradicts the assertion's claim about their primary value.

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Case-Based Questions (CBQ) for Empires and Kingdoms: 6th to 10th Centuries

Case Study:

A historian named Dr. Sharma is studying the period from 600–1200 CE in India. She has discovered three primary sources: (1) Copper plate inscriptions issued during Harṣhavardhana's reign describing land grants and official titles, (2) The travelogue of Xuanzang describing his observations of kingdoms, cities, and Buddhist learning centres between 630–644 CE, and (3) Three Sanskrit plays composed by Harṣhavardhana featuring themes of love, courtly life, and ethical values. Dr. Sharma wants to understand different aspects of Harṣha's rule: administrative organization, cultural patronage, and political relationships with neighbouring kingdoms. She needs to decide which source would be most suitable for each research question.

Q1. Which source would be most useful for understanding the administrative structure and land distribution policies of Harṣhavardhana's government?

  • A. Xuanzang's travelogue
  • B. Copper plate inscriptions ✓
  • C. Sanskrit plays composed by Harṣhavardhana
  • D. A combination of all three sources equally

Answer: B

Q2. Which source provides the most reliable evidence about Harṣhavardhana's cultural values, his support for scholars, and his patronage of arts?

  • A. Copper plate inscriptions alone
  • B. Xuanzang's travelogue alone
  • C. The Sanskrit plays, supplemented by accounts from Xuanzang and inscriptions ✓
  • D. Only historical narratives written centuries later

Answer: C

Q3. Xuanzang recorded details about 'politics, diplomacy, culture and religion in the kingdoms he crossed.' What advantage does his external, observational perspective provide compared to sources written by the rulers themselves?

  • A. He had access to secret government documents that rulers would not reveal
  • B. He provides an independent, cross-kingdom perspective on multiple rulers and their relationships, rather than self-promotional accounts ✓
  • C. He was more intelligent than Indian scholars and rulers of the period
  • D. He could predict future events in Indian history with accuracy

Answer: B

Q4. If Dr. Sharma wants to understand how Harṣhavardhana viewed himself and what image he wanted to project to his people and rulers, which source would be most revealing?

  • A. Copper plate inscriptions showing his official titles like 'great king of kings' ✓
  • B. Xuanzang's neutral observations about his political status
  • C. His Sanskrit plays emphasizing ethical values and courtly life
  • D. Archaeological ruins of his buildings and monuments

Answer: A

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