StudyOSStudyOS CBSE Study Material, Class 5–12

Self and Personality

NCERT Class 12 · Psychology Based on NCERT Class 12 Psychology textbook · Free CBSE study kit

Everything you need to ace this chapter, in one place.
Notes · Mind Map · Quiz · Assertion-Reason · Case Studies · Question Bank · Past Papers

Get Full Study Kit →
Studying with friends? Send them this chapter.

Chapter Notes

Overview
This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts of self and personality, exploring how individuals define their existence and exhibit stable patterns of behaviour. It delves into the cognitive and behavioural aspects of self, including self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-regulation, and examines how culture shapes the self. The major approaches to studying personality—type, trait, psychodynamic, behavioural, cultural, and humanistic—are discussed in detail, along with methods of personality assessment. The one big idea a student must walk away with is that self lies at the core of personality, and understanding both helps explain our uniqueness, similarities with others, and behaviour across diverse settings.
Key Concepts (68)
Self
The totality of an individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and feelings with regard to herself or himself.
e.g. When a person says, 'I am honest and hardworking,' they are describing their self.
Personality
The unique and relatively stable qualities that characterise an individual’s behaviour across different situations over a period of time.
e.g. A person who is consistently honest in school, at home, and with friends is said to have an honest personality.
Personal identity
Those attributes of a person that make her/him different from others.
e.g. Saying 'I am a dancer' or 'I am a believer in God' reflects personal identity.
Social identity
Those aspects of a person that link her/him to a social or cultural group or are derived from it.
e.g. Saying 'I am a Hindu' or 'I am a North Indian' indicates social identity.
Self-esteem
The value judgment of a person about herself/himself.
e.g. A child who says 'I am good at homework' and 'I am highly liked by my peers' has high self-esteem.
Self-efficacy
A person’s belief that s/he has the ability or behaviours required by a particular situation.
e.g. A student who believes they can pass an examination through their own effort has high self-efficacy.
Self-regulation
Our ability to organise and monitor our own behaviour.
e.g. A person who changes their behaviour according to the demands of the external environment is high on self-monitoring.
Self-control
Learning to delay or defer the gratification of needs.
e.g. Choosing to study instead of playing video games to achieve a long-term goal of good grades.
Trait
A relatively enduring attribute or quality on which one individual differs from another.
e.g. Shyness, friendliness, and honesty are traits along which individuals can be rated.
Type
A broad pattern of observed behavioural characteristics into which individuals are placed based on similarity.
e.g. Hippocrates classified people into sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic, and choleric types.
Id
The source of a person’s instinctual energy; it deals with immediate gratification of primitive needs, sexual desires and aggressive impulses, working on the pleasure principle.
e.g. A hungry baby crying for milk immediately is acting on the id.
Ego
The part of personality that grows out of the id and seeks to satisfy instinctual needs in accordance with reality, working by the reality principle.
e.g. A boy who wants an ice-cream cone asks for permission instead of grabbing it, because his ego tells him he may be punished.
Superego
The moral branch of mental functioning that tells the id and the ego whether gratification is ethical; it internalises parental authority through socialisation.
e.g. A boy who asks his mother for an ice-cream cone feels morally correct and does not experience guilt.
Defence mechanism
A way of reducing anxiety by distorting reality.
e.g. A student who fails an exam says, 'I will do much better with these new pens' — this is rationalisation.
Repression
A defence mechanism in which anxiety-provoking behaviours or thoughts are totally dismissed by the unconscious.
e.g. A person who says 'I do not know why I did that' may be expressing a repressed feeling.
Projection
A defence mechanism in which people attribute their own traits to others.
e.g. A person with strong aggressive tendencies sees others as acting aggressively towards them.
Denial
A defence mechanism in which a person totally refuses to accept reality.
e.g. Someone suffering from HIV/AIDS may altogether deny their illness.
Reaction formation
A defence mechanism in which a person defends against anxiety by adopting behaviours opposite to their true feelings.
e.g. A person with strong sexual urges channels energy into religious fervour.
Rationalisation
A defence mechanism in which a person tries to make unreasonable feelings or behaviour seem reasonable and acceptable.
e.g. A student who buys new pens after doing poorly in an exam says, 'I will do much better with these pens.'
Libido
The instinctual life force that energises the id; it works on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification.
e.g. The sexual energy that drives a person to seek pleasure is libido.
Oedipus Complex
A psychosexual conflict during the phallic stage where a male child experiences love for the mother, hostility towards the father, and fear of punishment or castration by the father.
e.g. A four-year-old boy who wants his mother’s full attention and sees his father as a rival is experiencing the Oedipus complex.
Electra Complex
The female version of the Oedipus complex, where a girl attaches her love to the father and tries to symbolically marry him, later identifying with the mother.
e.g. A girl who wants to marry her father and copies her mother’s behaviour is experiencing the Electra complex.
Collective unconscious
A part of the unconscious consisting of archetypes or primordial images that are inherited, not individually acquired.
e.g. The image of God or Mother Earth is an archetype found in the collective unconscious.
Archetypes
Primordial images that are inherited and form part of the collective unconscious.
e.g. The God or the Mother Earth are examples of archetypes.
Prakriti
The basic nature or temperament of a person, classified in Ayurveda based on the tridosha (vata, pitta, kapha).
e.g. A person with a vata prakriti may be energetic and creative.
Trigunas
Three fundamental qualities (sattva, rajas, tamas) present in every person in different degrees, determining behaviour.
e.g. A person with dominant sattva guna is truthful and disciplined; one with dominant rajas guna is materialistic and envious.
Self-concept
The way we perceive ourselves and the ideas we hold about our competencies and attributes.
e.g. A person may have a positive self-concept about athletic bravery but a negative one about academic talents.
Self as subject
The self described as an entity that does something (the actor or knower).
e.g. Saying 'I am a dancer' describes the self as a subject.
Self as object
The self described as an entity on which something is done (the consequence or known).
e.g. Saying 'I am one who easily gets hurt' describes the self as an object.
Personal self
The aspect of self that leads to an orientation concerned primarily with oneself, such as personal freedom, achievement, or comfort.
e.g. A person focused on personal achievement and responsibility is expressing their personal self.
Social self
The aspect of self that emerges in relation with others and emphasises cooperation, unity, affiliation, and sharing.
e.g. A person who values family relationships and social support is expressing their social self.
Cardinal traits
Highly generalised dispositions around which a person’s entire life seems to revolve.
e.g. Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violence and Hitler’s Nazism are cardinal traits.
Central traits
Less pervasive but still quite generalised dispositions, often used in writing testimonials.
e.g. Warm, sincere, diligent are central traits.
Secondary traits
The least generalised characteristics of a person.
e.g. Likes mangoes, prefers ethnic clothes are secondary traits.
Factor analysis
A statistical technique used to discover common structures or primary traits from a large array of descriptive adjectives.
e.g. Cattell used factor analysis to identify 16 primary or source traits.
16PF
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire developed by Cattell for the assessment of personality.
e.g. Psychologists use the 16PF to measure an individual’s source traits.
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
A test used for studying the dimensions of personality proposed by Eysenck (neuroticism, extraversion, psychoticism).
e.g. A researcher uses this questionnaire to assess whether a person is extraverted or introverted.
Type-A personality
Personality characterised by high motivation, impatience, time urgency, and being always burdened with work; prone to hypertension and coronary heart disease.
e.g. A person who is always in a hurry, finds it difficult to relax, and feels constantly under pressure has a Type-A personality.
Type-B personality
Personality characterised by the absence of Type-A traits; relaxed and easy-going.
e.g. A person who is calm, patient, and takes time to enjoy life has a Type-B personality.
Type-C personality
Personality prone to cancer; cooperative, unassertive, patient, suppresses negative emotions, and shows compliance to authority.
e.g. A person who never expresses anger and always agrees with authority figures may have a Type-C personality.
Type-D personality
Personality characterised by proneness to depression.
e.g. A person who is often sad, worried, and socially withdrawn may have a Type-D personality.
Big Five Factors
A set of five broad personality factors: Openness to experience, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, and Conscientiousness.
e.g. A person who is imaginative and curious scores high on Openness to experience; a person who is hostile and self-centered scores low on Agreeableness.
Psychoanalysis
A therapeutic procedure developed by Freud to bring repressed unconscious materials to consciousness, helping people live in a more self-aware and integrated manner.
e.g. Freud used free association and dream analysis in psychoanalysis to uncover unconscious conflicts.
Free association
A method in which a person is asked to openly share all the thoughts, feelings, and ideas that come to her/his mind.
e.g. A patient lying on a couch says whatever comes to mind, without censorship, to reveal unconscious material.
Conscious
The level of consciousness that includes thoughts, feelings, and actions of which people are aware.
e.g. Thinking about what you are reading right now is a conscious process.
Preconscious
The level of consciousness that includes mental activity of which people may become aware only if they attend to it closely.
e.g. Recalling a phone number you know but were not thinking about is a preconscious process.
Unconscious
The level of consciousness that includes mental activity that people are unaware of; a reservoir of instinctive drives and repressed wishes.
e.g. A repressed childhood memory that influences current behaviour without the person knowing it is in the unconscious.
Pleasure principle
The principle by which the id operates, assuming that people seek pleasure and try to avoid pain.
e.g. A baby crying for milk immediately is acting on the pleasure principle.
Reality principle
The principle by which the ego operates, directing the id towards more appropriate ways of behaving in accordance with reality.
e.g. A boy who wants an ice-cream cone asks for permission instead of grabbing it, following the reality principle.
Fixation
A situation where a child’s development gets arrested at an earlier stage due to failure to pass successfully through a psychosexual stage.
e.g. A child who does not resolve the Oedipal complex may remain fixated at the phallic stage.
Regression
A return to an earlier stage of development when a person’s resolution of problems at any stage is less than adequate.
e.g. An adult under stress may start thumb-sucking, regressing to the oral stage.
Analytical psychology
Jung’s theory of personality that assumes personality consists of competing forces within the individual that must be balanced, and includes the collective unconscious and archetypes.
e.g. Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious is central to analytical psychology.
Endomorphic
A body type that is fat, soft, and round; by temperament, endomorphs are relaxed and sociable.
e.g. A person who is overweight and enjoys social gatherings may be classified as endomorphic.
Mesomorphic
A body type with strong musculature, rectangular and strong body build; by temperament, mesomorphs are energetic and courageous.
e.g. An athlete with a muscular build and a bold personality may be classified as mesomorphic.
Ectomorphic
A body type that is thin, long, and fragile; by temperament, ectomorphs are brainy, artistic, and introvert.
e.g. A thin, shy, and artistic person may be classified as ectomorphic.
Introvert
A person who prefers to be alone, tends to avoid others, withdraws in the face of emotional conflicts, and is shy.
e.g. A student who prefers reading alone in the library rather than attending a party is an introvert.
Extravert
A person who is sociable, outgoing, drawn to occupations that allow dealing directly with people, and reacts to stress by seeking social activity.
e.g. A salesperson who enjoys meeting new people and is energized by social interactions is an extravert.
Neuroticism
A dimension of personality referring to the degree to which people have control over their feelings; at one extreme are anxious, moody, touchy people, at the other are calm, even-tempered people.
e.g. A person who is easily upset and worries constantly scores high on neuroticism.
Psychoticism
A dimension of personality proposed by Eysenck; a person who scores high on this dimension tends to be hostile, egocentric, and antisocial.
e.g. A person who is aggressive and lacks empathy may score high on psychoticism.
Sanguine
A personality type in Hippocrates’ typology, characterised by specific behavioural features (cheerful and optimistic).
e.g. A person who is always cheerful and hopeful may be described as sanguine.
Phlegmatic
A personality type in Hippocrates’ typology, characterised by calmness and sluggishness.
e.g. A person who is calm and unemotional may be described as phlegmatic.
Melancholic
A personality type in Hippocrates’ typology, characterised by sadness and depression.
e.g. A person who is often sad and pessimistic may be described as melancholic.
Choleric
A personality type in Hippocrates’ typology, characterised by irritability and anger.
e.g. A person who is easily angered and hot-tempered may be described as choleric.
Vata, Pitta, Kapha
The three humoural elements (tridosha) in Ayurveda, used to classify people into categories of temperament (prakriti).
e.g. A person with a vata-dominant prakriti may be thin and energetic; a pitta-dominant person may be intense and competitive.
Sattva guna
A quality (guna) that includes attributes like cleanliness, truthfulness, dutifulness, detachment, and discipline.
e.g. A person who is truthful and disciplined has a dominant sattva guna.
Rajas guna
A quality (guna) that includes intensive activity, desire for sense gratification, dissatisfaction, envy for others, and a materialistic mentality.
e.g. A person who is always restless and envious of others has a dominant rajas guna.
Tamas guna
A quality (guna) that characterises anger, arrogance, depression, laziness, and feeling of helplessness.
e.g. A person who is lazy and depressed has a dominant tamas guna.
Persona
The Latin word for mask used by actors in Roman theatre; the literal meaning of personality.
e.g. The mask an actor wore to play a role is the persona.
How It Works
Formation of Self
  1. A newborn child has no idea of its self.
  2. As the child grows, the idea of self emerges through interactions with parents, friends, teachers, and other significant persons.
  3. The child’s own experiences and the meaning given to them serve as the basis of self.
  4. The structure of self is modifiable in light of new experiences and experiences of other people.
💡 Self is not present at birth; it develops through social interaction and experience.
Development of Self-esteem
  1. By age 6 to 7, children form self-esteem in four areas: academic competence, social competence, physical/athletic competence, and physical appearance.
  2. These self-evaluations become more refined with age.
  3. Children combine separate self-evaluations into an overall sense of self-esteem.
  4. Warm and positive parenting helps develop high self-esteem; parents who make decisions for children when not needed lead to low self-esteem.
💡 Self-esteem is a value judgment about oneself, not just a description of abilities.
Development of Self-efficacy (Bandura’s Social Learning Theory)
  1. Children and adults learn behaviour by observing and imitating others.
  2. People develop expectations of mastery or achievement based on their convictions about their own effectiveness.
  3. These convictions determine the types of behaviour they engage in and the amount of risk they undertake.
  4. A strong sense of self-efficacy allows people to select, influence, and even construct the circumstances of their own life.
💡 Self-efficacy is about belief in one’s ability to perform a specific task, not general self-worth.
Self-regulation Techniques
  1. Observation of own behaviour provides necessary information to change, modify, or strengthen certain aspects of self.
  2. Self-instruction involves instructing oneself to do something and behave the way one wants.
  3. Self-reinforcement involves rewarding behaviours that have pleasant outcomes (e.g., going to a movie after doing well in an exam).
💡 Self-regulation is about organising and monitoring one’s own behaviour, not just controlling impulses.
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development
  1. Oral Stage (0-2 years): Infant’s instincts focus on the mouth; gratification through feeding, thumb sucking, biting, babbling.
  2. Anal Stage (2-3 years): Child learns to control urination and defecation; conflict between id and ego, and between babyish pleasure and adult control.
  3. Phallic Stage (4-5 years): Focus on genitals; Oedipus complex in boys, Electra complex in girls; resolution through identification with same-sex parent.
  4. Latency Stage (7 years to puberty): Sexual urges are relatively inactive; energy channelled into social or achievement-related activities.
  5. Genital Stage (puberty onward): Maturity in psychosexual development; learning to deal with opposite sex in a socially and sexually mature way.
💡 Failure at any stage leads to fixation; regression can occur under stress.
How Defence Mechanisms Work
  1. Anxiety arises from instinctual needs or conflicts.
  2. The ego uses defence mechanisms to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.
  3. Repression: Anxiety-provoking thoughts are dismissed into the unconscious.
  4. Projection: One’s own traits are attributed to others.
  5. Denial: Refusal to accept reality.
  6. Reaction formation: Adopting behaviours opposite to true feelings.
  7. Rationalisation: Making unreasonable feelings or behaviour seem reasonable.
💡 People using defence mechanisms are often unaware of doing so.
Cattell’s Trait Identification using Factor Analysis
  1. Cattell began with a huge array of descriptive adjectives found in language.
  2. He applied factor analysis, a statistical technique, to discover common structures.
  3. He found 16 primary or source traits, which are stable and considered the building blocks of personality.
  4. Surface traits result from the interaction of source traits.
  5. He developed the 16PF (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire) for assessment.
💡 Source traits are the underlying stable structures; surface traits are observable outcomes of their interaction.
Exam Traps — Don't Make These Mistakes
⚠ Confusing Self-esteem with Self-efficacy
✗ Self-esteem and self-efficacy are the same thing — both refer to how much a person likes themselves.
→ Self-esteem is a value judgment about one’s own worth, while self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to perform a specific task or behaviour required by a situation. They are distinct concepts.
✓ Self-esteem is the value judgment a person makes about herself/himself (e.g., 'I am good at homework'), whereas self-efficacy is the belief that one has the ability or behaviours required by a particular situation (e.g., 'I believe I can pass this exam').
⚠ Mixing up Id, Ego, and Superego Functions
✗ The id operates on the reality principle, the ego on the pleasure principle, and the superego is the moral branch.
→ This is exactly reversed. The id works on the pleasure principle (seeking immediate gratification), the ego works on the reality principle (delaying gratification in accordance with reality), and the superego is the moral branch.
✓ The id operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification. The ego operates on the reality principle, directing the id towards appropriate behaviour. The superego is the moral branch that tells whether gratification is ethical.
⚠ Confusing Cardinal, Central, and Secondary Traits
✗ Cardinal traits are the most common traits, central traits are less common, and secondary traits are the most important.
→ Cardinal traits are highly generalised dispositions around which a person’s entire life revolves (rare, e.g., Gandhi’s non-violence). Central traits are less pervasive but still generalised (e.g., warm, sincere). Secondary traits are the least generalised (e.g., likes mangoes).
✓ Cardinal traits are highly generalised and dominate a person’s life (e.g., non-violence for Gandhi). Central traits are generalised dispositions used in testimonials (e.g., warm, diligent). Secondary traits are specific and least generalised (e.g., prefers ethnic clothes).
⚠ Thinking Defence Mechanisms are Always Maladaptive
✗ Defence mechanisms are always harmful and indicate maladjustment.
→ Freud believed that some defence against anxiety is normal and adaptive. It is only when these mechanisms are used to such an extent that reality is truly distorted that maladjustment develops.
✓ Defence mechanisms are ways of reducing anxiety by distorting reality. Some defence is normal and adaptive, but excessive use leading to reality distortion results in maladjustment.
⚠ Confusing Type and Trait Approaches
✗ Type approaches focus on specific psychological attributes, while trait approaches classify people into broad categories.
→ It is the opposite. Type approaches classify people into broad patterns (e.g., introvert/extravert), while trait approaches focus on specific psychological attributes (traits) along which individuals differ in consistent and stable ways (e.g., shyness, friendliness).
✓ Type approaches attempt to comprehend personality by examining broad patterns and placing individuals into types (e.g., sanguine, melancholic). Trait approaches focus on specific psychological attributes (traits) along which individuals differ in consistent and stable ways (e.g., shyness, friendliness).
⚠ Misunderstanding the Indian vs. Western Self Boundary
✗ In Western culture, the self is fused with the group; in Indian culture, the self is completely separate from the group.
→ This is reversed. In Western culture, the self and group exist as separate entities with clearly defined boundaries (individualistic). In Indian culture, the self is generally not separated from one’s own group; the boundary is shifting and they remain in harmonious co-existence (collectivistic).
✓ In Western culture, the self and group are separate with fixed boundaries (individualistic). In Indian culture, the self and group are in harmonious co-existence with a shifting boundary (collectivistic).
Compare & Contrast
Nature of judgment
Self-esteem
Self-efficacy
Self-esteem is a value judgment about one’s own worth (e.g., 'I am good at homework'), while self-efficacy is a belief about one’s ability to perform a specific behaviour required by a situation (e.g., 'I believe I can pass this exam').
Method of categorising personality
Type Approach
Trait Approach
Type approach classifies people into broad, discrete categories based on similarity of behavioural patterns (e.g., introvert/extravert), whereas trait approach identifies specific, continuous psychological attributes (traits) along which individuals differ in degree (e.g., shyness, friendliness).
Operating principle
Id
Ego
The id operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of instinctual needs, while the ego operates on the reality principle, seeking to satisfy needs in accordance with reality and delaying gratification when necessary.
Boundary between self and other
Indian View of Self
Western View of Self
In the Indian view, the boundary between self and other is shifting and the self often fuses with the group (collectivistic), whereas in the Western view, the boundary is fixed and the self remains separate from the group (individualistic).
Exam Focus
Marks pattern: 2 MCQs (1 mark each), 1 SA (3 marks), 1 LA (5 marks). Total approximately 10 marks.
Most asked: Freud’s structure of personality (id, ego, superego) · Defence mechanisms (especially repression, projection, rationalisation) · Type vs. Trait approaches · Big Five Factors of personality · Self-esteem and self-efficacy · Psychosexual stages of development (especially Oedipus complex) · Indian vs. Western concept of self
Don't skip: Explain Freud’s structure of personality with the roles of id, ego, and superego.; Differentiate between type and trait approaches to personality.; Describe the Big Five Factors of personality.; Explain defence mechanisms with examples.; Compare the Indian and Western views of self.
One-Line Revision (read aloud before the exam)
  1. Self refers to the totality of an individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and feelings with regard to herself or himself.
  2. Personality is the unique and relatively stable pattern of behaviour across different situations over time.
  3. Personal identity includes attributes that make a person different from others, while social identity links a person to a social or cultural group.
  4. Self-esteem is the value judgment a person makes about her/his own worth.
  5. Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to perform a behaviour required by a particular situation, based on Bandura’s social learning theory.
  6. Self-regulation involves organising and monitoring one’s own behaviour through observation, self-instruction, and self-reinforcement.
  7. In Indian culture, the self is collectivistic with a shifting boundary; in Western culture, the self is individualistic with a fixed boundary.
  8. Type approaches classify people into broad categories (e.g., introvert/extravert); trait approaches identify specific attributes along which people differ.
  9. The Big Five Factors are Openness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, and Conscientiousness.
  10. Freud’s structure of personality includes id (pleasure principle), ego (reality principle), and superego (moral branch).
  11. Defence mechanisms like repression, projection, denial, reaction formation, and rationalisation reduce anxiety by distorting reality.
  12. Freud’s psychosexual stages are oral, anal, phallic (Oedipus/Electra complex), latency, and genital.
  13. Cattell used factor analysis to identify 16 source traits and developed the 16PF questionnaire.
  14. Eysenck proposed three dimensions: neuroticism vs. emotional stability, extraversion vs. introversion, and psychoticism vs. sociability.
  15. Type-A personality is prone to coronary heart disease; Type-B is relaxed; Type-C is prone to cancer; Type-D is prone to depression.
  16. Jung proposed the collective unconscious containing archetypes, which are inherited primordial images.
  17. In Ayurveda, personality is classified into vata, pitta, and kapha (tridosha) or based on trigunas: sattva, rajas, and tamas.
  18. Self-concept is the way we perceive ourselves and the ideas we hold about our competencies and attributes.
  19. Self-control involves delaying or deferring gratification of needs, crucial for long-term goal fulfilment.
  20. Personality assessment methods include self-report measures, projective techniques, and behavioural analysis.

MCQs — 10 Questions with Answers

Q1. Albert Bandura's concept of self-efficacy refers to:

  • A. A person's overall evaluation of their self-worth
  • B. An individual's belief in their capability to perform tasks and achieve goals ✓
  • C. The match between real self and ideal self
  • D. The stable pattern of behaviour across situations

Answer: B — Self-efficacy, proposed by Bandura, specifically means belief in one's own capability; self-esteem (A) is evaluative worth; congruence (C) is Rogers' concept; personality (D) is stable behaviour.

Q2. Which of the following is NOT a component of personal identity?

  • A. Name and individual characteristics
  • B. Skills and potentialities like being a singer or dancer
  • C. Religious or cultural group membership ✓
  • D. Personal beliefs and values

Answer: C — Religious or cultural group membership belongs to social identity, not personal identity; personal identity comprises unique individual attributes only.

Q3. Rogers' concept of congruence in personality development refers to:

  • A. Unconscious conflicts between id, ego, and superego
  • B. The match between a person's real self and their ideal self ✓
  • C. The stability of personality traits across different situations
  • D. The degree of extraversion or introversion in a person

Answer: B — Rogers' congruence specifically measures alignment between real self (actual) and ideal self (desired); unconscious conflicts (A) relate to Freud; stability (C) defines personality; extraversion (D) is a trait.

Q4. The Big Five model of personality includes all of the following EXCEPT:

  • A. Openness to experience
  • B. Conscientiousness
  • C. Aggression ✓
  • D. Neuroticism

Answer: C — The Big Five (OCEAN) includes Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism; aggression is not a primary Big Five factor.

Q5. In the Rorschach Inkblot Test, a standard set of _____ cards is used for personality assessment.

  • A. 5
  • B. 10 ✓
  • C. 15
  • D. 20

Answer: B — The Rorschach Inkblot Test uses exactly 10 standardised cards showing ambiguous inkblots for projective personality assessment.

Q6. Which approach to personality emphasizes the role of unconscious drives, defence mechanisms, and psychosexual stages?

  • A. Humanistic approach
  • B. Behavioural approach
  • C. Psychodynamic approach ✓
  • D. Trait approach

Answer: C — The psychodynamic approach, originating with Freud, focuses on unconscious drives, defence mechanisms, and developmental stages; other approaches emphasize different factors.

Q7. Self-regulation involves all the following EXCEPT:

  • A. Controlling your own behaviour according to desired standards
  • B. Managing your emotional responses in situations
  • C. Allowing others to fully determine your actions ✓
  • D. Directing your responses toward personal goals

Answer: C — Self-regulation requires personal control and autonomy; allowing others to fully determine your actions is the opposite of self-regulation.

Q8. When a child develops the idea of self primarily through interaction with parents, teachers, and significant others, this process is known as:

  • A. Self-actualisation
  • B. Personality type formation
  • C. Social shaping of self ✓
  • D. Defence mechanism development

Answer: C — The text emphasizes that parents, friends, teachers, and others play vital roles in shaping a child's self-concept through interaction — this is social shaping of self.

Q9. Which personality assessment method uses ambiguous stimuli and requires interpretation, making it a projective technique?

  • A. NEO-PI-R questionnaire
  • B. 16 Personality Factor Test
  • C. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) ✓
  • D. Behavioural rating scale

Answer: C — TAT is a projective technique where individuals create stories about ambiguous cards; questionnaires (A, B) are self-report; rating scales (D) are direct observation.

Q10. According to the text, if a person's real self significantly differs from their ideal self, Rogers would predict:

  • A. High self-efficacy and strong personality traits
  • B. Development of unconscious defence mechanisms only
  • C. Psychological distress, anxiety, and defensive behaviour (incongruence) ✓
  • D. Increased extraversion and openness to experience

Answer: C — Rogers emphasized that incongruence between real and ideal self causes psychological distress and defensive responses; congruence is necessary for mental health.

Flashcards

What is self in psychology?

Self is the totality of an individual's conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts, and feelings about oneself at both personal and social levels.

Define self-concept.

Self-concept is the cognitive aspect of self — how you mentally perceive and think about yourself.

What is self-esteem?

Self-esteem is the evaluative aspect of self — the value or worth you place on yourself.

Who proposed self-efficacy and what does it mean?

Albert Bandura proposed self-efficacy, which means your belief in your own capability to perform tasks and achieve goals.

Define personality in psychology.

Personality is the relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that an individual displays across different situations.

What is the difference between personal identity and social identity?

Personal identity comprises unique individual attributes (name, qualities), while social identity refers to characteristics derived from group or cultural membership (religion, caste, region).

Explain self-regulation.

Self-regulation is the ability to control and manage your own behaviour, emotions, and responses according to desired standards or goals.

What does it mean that self has dual status — subject and object?

Self as subject means you are the knower actively knowing yourself; as object means you are what is being known and observed.

What is congruence in Rogers' theory?

Congruence is the match between your real self (actual self) and ideal self (who you want to be); lack of congruence causes psychological distress.

Name the Big Five personality traits (OCEAN).

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism are the five major personality factors in the Big Five model.

Important Board Questions

Define self-efficacy and explain how it differs from self-esteem. (2 marks) [2 marks]

Self-efficacy (Bandura) = belief in capability to perform tasks; self-esteem = evaluative worth placed on oneself. Give one distinguishing feature.

Explain the concept of congruence in Carl Rogers' humanistic approach and discuss how incongruence can affect an individual's psychological well-being. (5 marks) [5 marks]

Congruence = match between real self and ideal self. Explain how mismatch causes anxiety, defensive behaviour, and distress; relate to need for unconditional positive regard and why alignment improves well-being.

Describe the Big Five personality model (OCEAN) and explain how it differs from type approaches to personality. Provide one real-life example of how the Big Five dimensions help explain individual differences in behaviour. (6 marks) [6 marks]

Define OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. Compare with type approach (limited categories, less predictive). Use Indian example: student with high conscientiousness and low neuroticism performs better academically despite stress. Mention dimensional vs categorical nature.

Assertion-Reason Questions for Self and Personality

Q1. Assertion (A):

Self-esteem refers to the evaluative component of self, representing how much an individual values themselves.

Reason (R):

Self-esteem is based solely on external achievements and cannot be influenced by internal beliefs or self-perception.

Answer: C — A is true but R is false — The assertion is true—self-esteem is indeed evaluative and represents self-value. However, the reason is false; self-esteem is influenced by both internal beliefs and external validation, not solely by achievements. When the assertion is true but the reason is false, the answer is C.

Q2. Assertion (A):

According to Carl Rogers, incongruence between real self and ideal self leads to psychological distress and maladjustment.

Reason (R):

Rogers believed that unconditional positive regard from significant others facilitates congruence and promotes psychological health.

Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A — Both statements are correct. Incongruence does create distress (Rogers' theory), and unconditional positive regard does promote congruence and health. The reason correctly explains why incongruence occurs—lack of unconditional acceptance creates the gap between real and ideal self. Both are true AND reason explains assertion.

Q3. Assertion (A):

Bandura's concept of self-efficacy refers to an individual's general sense of self-worth and overall self-esteem.

Reason (R):

Self-efficacy is task-specific and relates to one's belief in capability to execute behaviours needed to produce specific outcomes.

Answer: D — A is false but R is true — The assertion is false—self-efficacy is NOT the same as general self-worth. The reason correctly defines self-efficacy as task-specific belief in capability. Since assertion is false but reason is true, answer is C. Students often confuse self-efficacy with self-esteem.

Unlock more Assertion-Reason questions in Premium — unlock →

Case-Based Questions (CBQ) for Self and Personality

Case Study:

Aditya is a 16-year-old student preparing for competitive exams. Despite being highly intelligent, he often feels anxious about his abilities and doubts whether he can succeed. When he scores well on practice tests, he attributes it to luck or easy questions. However, when he performs poorly, he blames himself and his lack of ability. His parents frequently criticize his study methods and rarely acknowledge his efforts. Aditya has gradually become withdrawn and is losing confidence in his academic pursuits, even though his teachers recognize his potential.

Q1. Based on Bandura's theory, what psychological construct is most negatively affected in Aditya's case?

  • A. Self-efficacy regarding academic performance ✓
  • B. His personality type (introversion vs extraversion)
  • C. His general intelligence level
  • D. His superego development

Answer: A

Q2. According to Carl Rogers' theory, what is the primary reason for Aditya's psychological distress?

  • A. He has an overdeveloped superego creating excessive guilt
  • B. There is incongruence between his real self (intelligent) and ideal self (perfect), worsened by lack of unconditional positive regard from parents ✓
  • C. He is in the phallic stage of psychosexual development
  • D. He demonstrates an external locus of control in all situations

Answer: B

Q3. Aditya's attribution pattern (success to luck, failure to ability) reflects which cognitive-personality characteristic?

  • A. High self-esteem and confidence
  • B. Low self-efficacy with internal attribution bias for negative outcomes ✓
  • C. Healthy self-regulation and adaptive coping
  • D. Mature use of sublimation as a defence mechanism

Answer: B

Q4. What intervention strategy from Rogers' humanistic approach would BEST help address Aditya's issues?

  • A. Provide unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuine acceptance regardless of grades ✓
  • B. Increase parental criticism to push him toward perfectionism
  • C. Administer psychoanalytic therapy to uncover unconscious conflicts
  • D. Prescribe anxiety medication to reduce his self-doubt

Answer: A

Unlock more case studies in Premium — unlock →

Previous Year Questions (PYQ) for Self and Personality

Real CBSE board exam questions from past papers — free to attempt.

CBSE 2026 · Set Psychology · 1 mark

Rohan failed an important exam. Instead of accepting that he didn't prepare well, he insists that the teacher was biased and the exam was unfair. Which defence mechanism is Rohan using?

  • Repression
  • Projection
  • Rationalization
  • Denial

CBSE 2026 · Set Psychology · 1 mark

Meera always felt left out, low and incompetent as a child because her elder siblings were more successful. Now she works extremely hard to be the best in every task she takes up. According to Adler, this behaviour can be explained by:

  • Fixation
  • Inferiority Complex
  • Superiority Complex
  • Regression

CBSE 2026 · Set Psychology · 1 mark

Ananya is known in school for honesty. No matter the situation, she always speaks the truth. According to Allport, this trait can be classified as:

  • Central Trait
  • Cardinal Trait
  • Secondary Trait
  • Source Trait

CBSE 2026 · Set Psychology · 1 mark

Which concept is based on Bandura's social learning theory?

  • Self-esteem
  • Self-efficacy
  • Self-concept
  • Identity crisis

CBSE 2026 · Set Psychology · 3 marks

Riya is on a strict diet because she wants to stay healthy and prepare for her upcoming school sports competition. One evening, she opens the fridge and sees a big, delicious chocolate cake that her mom made for a family dinner the next day. She immediately feels the urge to eat it, but plans to eat it after the sports competition. As per Freud's theory, explain Riya's behaviour in terms of id, ego and superego.

CBSE 2026 · Set Psychology · 6 marks

Direct techniques of personality assessment come with their own drawbacks especially related to social desirability. In such a condition, suggest other methods of personality assessment which can tap the unconscious of the individual. Mention any four such effective techniques.

CBSE 2025 · Set 63_psychology · 1 mark

Which of the following is not a major criticism of Psychodynamic theories?

  • They are largely based on case studies and lack a rigorous scientific basis.
  • They use small and atypical individuals as samples for advancing generalisations.
  • The concepts are well defined and easily submitted to scientific testing.
  • They face criticism for using non-representative samples.

CBSE 2025 · Set 63_psychology · 1 mark

According to Sheldon's typology, which of the following combinations correctly matches the body build with the associated temperament?

  • Endomorphs – Thin, long, fragile, brainy, artistic, introvert
  • Mesomorphs – Strong musculature, strong body build, rectangular, energetic, courageous
  • Ectomorphs – Fat, soft, round, relaxed, sociable
  • Endomorphs – Strong musculature, rectangular, energetic, courageous

CBSE 2025 · Set 63_psychology · 4 marks

You are a psychologist assessing the personality and emotional state of a new client using projective techniques. You decide to use the Sentence Completion Test and Draw-a-Person Test. Describe how you would use these tests and explain what kind of information you might gain from each test.

CBSE 2025 · Set 63_psychology · 6 marks

How does Freud explain the stability and potential changes in personality over a person's lifetime? Provide an overview of each stage and discuss the impact of encountering problems at any stage on personality development.

CBSE 2023 · Set 63_Psychology · 1 mark

There are some people who are hostile, egocentric and antisocial. They are said to be high on _________.

  • Sociability
  • Psychoticism
  • Neuroticism
  • Introversion

CBSE 2023 · Set 63_Psychology · 1 mark

The self that values family and social relationships is referred to as _________.

  • (i) and (iii)
  • (ii) and (iii)
  • (iii) and (iv)
  • (i) and (iv)

See all 15 board PYQs for this chapter — open PYQ tab →

Next chapterMeeting Life Challenges →
Found this useful? Share it with your class group.

You've seen the free preview. Open the full interactive study kit — mind map, instant-graded quiz, progress tracking — free, no sign-in required.

Open Full Study Kit — Free →

Premium unlocks the full Question Bank, Daily Practice Papers, Chapter Quiz and Full Mock Papers for every chapter.