Psychological Disorders

**PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS – COMPREHENSIVE CHEAT SHEET**

**CONCEPTS OF ABNORMALITY & PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS**

• Abnormality = deviation from social norms and maladaptive behaviour

• Four Ds Framework: Deviance (unusual/bizarre) → Distress (unpleasant) → Dysfunction (interferes with daily activities) → Danger (to self/others)

• Maladaptive Behaviour = inability to modify behaviour according to changing environmental requirements; fails to foster well-being and growth

• Adaptation = modifying behaviour in response to changing environmental demands

**Two Conflicting Views on Abnormality:**

1. SOCIAL NORMS APPROACH: Abnormal behaviour = deviation from society's stated/unstated rules for proper conduct → Based on culture, values, history, institutions → Problem: assumes socially accepted = normal; ignores individual well-being

2. MALADAPTIVE APPROACH (Preferred): Abnormal behaviour = interferes with individual well-being, growth, fulfilment, and self-actualisation (Maslow) → Better criterion because it focuses on optimal functioning and personal actualisation → Problem-based approach identifying vulnerability, inability to cope, or environmental stress

• Stigma attached to mental illness = hesitancy to seek help; psychological disorders should be viewed as any other illness

• Abnormal Psychology = study of maladaptive behaviour, its causes, consequences, and treatment

**HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR**

• Supernatural/Magical Theory: Abnormal behaviour caused by evil spirits, demons, devil (shaitan), bhoot-pret → Treatment: Exorcism (removing evil through counter-magic and prayer)

• Shaman/Medicine Man Role: Ojha believed to have contact with supernatural forces; identifies which spirits cause problems and how to appease them

• Biological/Organic Approach: Abnormal behaviour results from malfunctioning body and brain processes → Modern evidence links body-brain processes to maladaptive behaviour → Forms basis of medical/biological models

**MODELS/APPROACHES TO ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR**

**Biological Model:** Abnormal behaviour = brain dysfunction, neurochemical imbalances, genetic factors, medical illness → Focus: neurotransmitters, brain structure, heredity

**Psychological Models:**

• Psychoanalytic (Freud): Unconscious conflicts, repressed experiences, early childhood trauma → Treatment: psychoanalysis, free association

• Cognitive Model: Faulty thinking patterns, irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions → Beck's Cognitive Theory (negative automatic thoughts) → Ellis's Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT): Challenge irrational beliefs

• Behavioural Model: Maladaptive learning, conditioning, environmental reinforcement → Wolpe's Systematic Desensitisation: gradually expose to feared stimulus

• Humanistic Model: Incongruence between real self and ideal self (Rogers); lack of self-actualisation; damaged self-concept

**Stress-Diathesis Model:** Abnormal behaviour results from interaction between predisposition (diathesis) + environmental stressors → Explains why some people develop disorders while others don't

**Biopsychosocial Model:** Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding abnormal behaviour

**CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS (DSM-5)**

• DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition) = standard classification system

• Provides diagnostic criteria, symptom duration, severity levels for each disorder

• Allows standardised assessment and communication among mental health professionals

**MAJOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS**

**1. ANXIETY DISORDERS**

• Characterised by: excessive fear, worry, apprehension; avoidance behaviours; physical symptoms (racing heart, sweating, trembling)

• Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Persistent, excessive worry about multiple aspects of daily life for 6+ months → symptoms interfere with functioning

• Panic Disorder: Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks (sudden intense fear with physical symptoms: chest pain, shortness of breath, dizziness, feeling of dying) → Often develop agoraphobia (fear of leaving safe places)

• Phobic Disorders: Persistent, irrational fear of specific object/situation (social phobia, specific phobia like arachnophobia, claustrophobia) → leads to avoidance

• Separation Anxiety Disorder: Excessive anxiety when separated from attachment figure; inappropriate for developmental level

**2. OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE AND RELATED DISORDERS**

• Obsessions = unwanted, intrusive thoughts, images, urges (e.g., fear of contamination, harm, need for symmetry) → cause anxiety/distress

• Compulsions = repetitive behaviours/mental acts performed to reduce anxiety from obsessions (e.g., washing, checking, counting, arranging) → recognised as excessive by person

• OCD = obsessions + compulsions significantly interfere with daily functioning, relationships, work

• Related Disorders: Body Dysmorphic Disorder (preoccupation with perceived flaws in appearance), Hoarding Disorder, Trichotillomania (hair-pulling)

**3. TRAUMA- AND STRESSOR-RELATED DISORDERS**

• Triggered by exposure to traumatic/stressful events

• Acute Stress Disorder: Symptoms appear within 1 month of trauma; last 3 days to 1 month

• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Develops after exposure to death, injury, sexual violence; symptoms persist 1+ month → Involves re-experiencing (flashbacks, nightmares), avoidance, negative mood/cognitions, hyperarousal

• Adjustment Disorders: Maladaptive response to identifiable stressor within 3 months of stressor onset

**4. SOMATIC SYMPTOM AND RELATED DISORDERS**

• Somatic Symptom Disorder: Excessive thoughts, feelings, behaviours related to somatic symptoms; significant distress/impairment; symptoms persistent (6+ months)

• Illness Anxiety Disorder: Preoccupation with having serious illness despite minimal/no symptoms

• Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder): Loss of motor/sensory function without neurological explanation; follows psychological stressor

• Factitious Disorder: Intentional production of false symptoms; not for external reward

• Key Feature: Somatic symptoms cause significant distress and life disruption

**5. DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS**

• Characterised by disruption in normal integration of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, behaviour, perception

• Dissociation = detachment from reality; feeling observer of self (depersonalisation) or surroundings (derealisation)

• Depersonalisation/Derealisation Disorder: Recurrent episodes of depersonalisation or derealisation; reality testing intact; significant distress

• Dissociative Amnesia: Inability to recall important personal information; usually related to traumatic/stressful event; selective amnesia

• Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder): Presence of two or more distinct personality states; recurrent gaps in recall; significant distress/impairment

• Other Specified Dissociative Disorder: Symptoms below threshold for specific diagnosis

**SALIENT FEATURES OF SOMATIC & DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS (Box 4.1)**

• Somatic: Real physical symptoms → psychological origin; person seeks medical help; physical examination often normal; symptoms cause distress

• Dissociative: Disruption of consciousness/memory/identity; person may be unaware of symptoms; usually result of trauma; symptoms represent escape/avoidance from trauma

• Both: Response to psychological stress; significant impairment in functioning; no apparent medical/neurological basis; involve body/mind disconnection

**6. DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS**

• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): Depressed mood (sadness, emptiness, irritability) and/or loss of interest/pleasure (anhedonia) for 2+ weeks; accompanied by changes in:

Sleep (insomnia or hypersomnia)

Appetite/weight (increase/decrease)

Energy/fatigue (significant decrease)

Concentration/decision-making (difficulty)

Feelings of worthlessness/guilt (excessive, inappropriate)

Psychomotor changes (agitation or retardation)

Thoughts of death/suicide

• Severity: Mild, Moderate, Severe (with/without psychotic features)

• Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia): Depressed mood most days for 2+ years (1+ year in children/adolescents); fewer symptoms than MDD but longer duration

• Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder: Mood/anxiety symptoms tied to menstrual cycle; severe impairment

• Mood-Congruent/Incongruent Delusions: Depressive delusions (e.g., deserving punishment, being dead inside) align with depressed mood

**7. BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS**

• Bipolar I Disorder: One or more manic episodes (sometimes with depressive episodes)

• Bipolar II Disorder: Hypomanic episodes + major depressive episodes (no full mania)

• Manic Episode: Abnormally elevated/expansive/irritable mood lasting 1+ week; increased goal-directed activity, decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts, pressured speech, distractibility, impulsive behaviours (spending, sexual, substance abuse)

• Hypomanic Episode: Similar to mania but lasts 4+ days; less severe; may not cause significant impairment

• Depressive Episodes: Same as MDD

• Cyclothymic Disorder: Alternating hypomanic and depressive symptoms for 2+ years without meeting full criteria for episodes

• Risk of suicide high in bipolar disorders

**8. SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM AND OTHER PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS**

• Schizophrenia: Presence of two or more of following for 1+ month (active phase); functional decline; continuous signs for 6+ months:

Delusions = false, fixed beliefs not based on reality (e.g., persecutory: being followed; grandiose: special powers; reference: ordinary events have special meaning; somatic: body is diseased)

Hallucinations = false sensory perceptions without external stimulus (most common: auditory → hearing voices)

Disorganised speech = incoherence, tangentiality, derailment, word salad

Disorganised/catatonic behaviour = unpredictable agitation, stupor, waxy flexibility, mutism

Negative symptoms = diminished emotional expression, avolition (lack of motivation), alogia (poverty of speech), anhedonia

• Subtypes (historical): Paranoid, Disorganised, Catatonic, Undifferentiated, Residual

• Prodromal Phase: Subtle changes in perception, thought, behaviour preceding onset

• Brief Psychotic Disorder: Psychotic symptoms 1 day–1 month

• Schizophreniform Disorder: Symptoms 1–6 months

• Schizoaffective Disorder: Psychotic symptoms + mood episodes; psychosis occurs independently of mood

• Delusional Disorder: Non-bizarre delusions only; 1+ month; functioning relatively preserved

• Shared Psychotic Disorder: Delusions develop in second person influenced by first person with established delusion

**9. NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS**

• Intellectual Disability: Significantly below-average intellectual functioning (IQ <70) + deficits in adaptive functioning (conceptual, social, practical); onset during developmental period

• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Persistent deficits in social communication + restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour/interests/activities; onset early childhood

Level of support needed: Level 1 (requiring support), Level 2 (requiring substantial support), Level 3 (requiring very substantial support)

• Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Persistent inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity; symptoms present before age 12; impairment across settings

Inattention: difficulty sustaining attention, easily distracted, forgetful, loses things, avoids tasks requiring sustained effort

Hyperactivity-Impulsivity: fidgetiness, restlessness, excessive talking, difficulty waiting turn, interrupting

• Specific Learning Disorder: Difficulty in academic skills (reading, mathematics, written expression) despite adequate instruction and intelligence; age 7+ typically identified

• Communication Disorders: Language Disorder, Speech Sound Disorder, Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder, Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder

**10. DISRUPTIVE, IMPULSE-CONTROL, AND CONDUCT DISORDERS**

• Characterised by difficulty controlling emotions and behaviour; violate rights of others

• Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): Pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behaviour, vindictiveness lasting 6+ months

• Conduct Disorder: Repetitive, persistent violation of rights of others and age-appropriate societal norms; aggression, destruction, deceitfulness, rule violation

• Intermittent Explosive Disorder: Recurrent outbursts of aggressive behaviour disproportionate to provocation

• Pyromania: Deliberate fire-setting for gratification/tension relief (not for financial gain or other reasons)

• Kleptomania: Recurrent failure to resist urge to steal objects not needed for survival

**11. FEEDING AND EATING DISORDERS**

• Anorexia Nervosa: Restriction of food intake leading to significantly low body weight; intense fear of weight gain despite low weight; distorted body image → Subtypes: Restricting type (diet/exercise), Binge-Eating/Purging type (binge-eating + compensatory purging)

• Bulimia Nervosa: Recurrent binge-eating (eating excessive food with loss of control) followed by compensatory behaviours (purging: vomiting, laxatives, diuretics; non-purging: fasting, excessive exercise); body weight relatively normal; preoccupation with body shape/weight

• Binge-Eating Disorder: Recurrent binge-eating without compensatory behaviours; associated with obesity, guilt, shame

• Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder: Restriction of food intake (not for weight control or religious reasons) leading to nutritional deficiency, dependence on supplements, significant impairment

• Pica: Persistent eating of non-food substances (dirt, ice, chalk, paint) for 1+ month; may be associated with intellectual disability, autism, iron deficiency

• Rumination Disorder: Repeated regurgitation of food; food re-chewed, re-swallowed, or spat out; occurs after successful swallowing

• Severe health consequences: Malnutrition, electrolyte imbalances, heart problems, bone loss, gastrointestinal complications, death (highest mortality rate among psychiatric disorders)

**12. SUBSTANCE-RELATED AND ADDICTIVE DISORDERS**

• Substance Use Disorder: Maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant impairment/distress; symptoms include: failed attempts to cut down, continued use despite problems, tolerance (need more to feel effect), withdrawal (unpleasant symptoms when not using), neglect of activities, continued use despite harm

• Substance-Induced Disorders: Intoxication (reversible physical/mental changes during/shortly after use), Withdrawal (unpleasant physical/psychological symptoms after cessation), Substance-Induced Mental Disorders (delirium, psychosis, mood disorder, anxiety disorder, sleep disorder)

**EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL (Box 4.2)**

• Short-term: Impaired judgment, reduced inhibition, slurred speech, poor coordination, blackouts

• Long-term: Liver damage (cirrhosis), neurological damage (Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome), cardiovascular problems, cancer risk, cognitive decline, psychological dependence, withdrawal symptoms (tremors, seizures, hallucinations, delirium tremens – DTs)

• Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: Birth defects from maternal alcohol use during pregnancy (intellectual disability, facial abnormalities, growth retardation)

• Alcohol Dependence: Tolerance, withdrawal, inability to reduce use, continued use despite consequences

**COMMONLY ABUSED SUBSTANCES (Box 4.3)**

• Depressants: Alcohol, Benzodiazepines (anxiety medication; sedative-hypnotics) → slow CNS; produce relaxation, intoxication

• Stimulants: Cocaine, Amphetamines, Methamphetamine, Caffeine, Nicotine → increase CNS activity; increase alertness, energy, confidence

• Opioids: Heroin, Morphine, Codeine, Prescription pain medications → produce euphoria, analgesia, respiratory depression; high addiction potential; overdose causes respiratory failure

• Hallucinogens: LSD, Psilocybin, Mescaline → alter perception, thought, mood; produce hallucinations, distorted reality

• Cannabis (Marijuana): Mixed effects (depressant + stimulant + hallucinogenic); impaired memory, motivation, psychosis risk in vulnerable individuals

• MDMA (Ecstasy): Stimulant + empathogenic; increase serotonin; neurotoxic; dehydration risk in party settings

• Inhalants: Volatile substances (glue, paint thinner); brain damage, sudden death

• Dependence = compulsive use despite negative consequences; tolerance and withdrawal occur

**FACTORS UNDERLYING ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR**

**Biological Factors:**

• Genetic Predisposition: Family history of mental illness → heritability varies by disorder (schizophrenia 80%, depression 40%)

• Neurotransmitter Imbalances: Low serotonin → depression; dopamine dysfunction → schizophrenia; GABA deficiency → anxiety

• Brain Structure Abnormalities: Enlarged ventricles, reduced hippocampus, prefrontal cortex dysfunction → associated with various disorders

• Medical Conditions: Thyroid disorders, tumours, infections, neurological diseases can cause psychiatric symptoms

• Prenatal/Birth Factors: Maternal infections, malnutrition, anoxia, premature birth → neurodevelopmental disorders

• Hormonal Factors: Cortisol dysregulation (stress hormone) → anxiety, depression; thyroid → mood disorders

**Psychological Factors:**

• Stress: Major life events (loss, trauma, failure) → trigger psychopathology in vulnerable individuals

• Trauma: Physical/emotional abuse, PTSD, complex trauma → dissociative, mood, anxiety disorders

• Personality Factors: Neuroticism (tendency to experience negative emotions), perfectionism → depression, anxiety

• Coping Skills: Poor coping, avoidance → maladaptive responses to stress

• Cognitive Factors: Negative thinking patterns (Beck), irrational beliefs (Ellis), learned helplessness (Seligman) → depression, anxiety

• Unconscious Conflicts: Repressed desires, unresolved childhood issues (Freud) → neuroses

• Self-Actualisation Deficits: Incongruence between real and ideal self (Rogers) → psychological distress

**Social/Environmental Factors:**

• Socioeconomic Status: Poverty, lack of resources → increased stress, limited access to healthcare

• Family Dynamics: Parental rejection, abuse, inconsistent discipline, family conflict, dysfunctional communication patterns

• Peer Relationships: Bullying, social isolation, peer rejection → depression, anxiety, conduct problems

• Cultural Factors: Cultural stressors, discrimination, acculturation stress → mental health problems in minority groups

• Environmental Stressors: Crowding, noise, pollution, neighbourhood violence

• Lack of Social Support: Isolation, few meaningful relationships → inability to cope with stress

• Substance-Exposed Environment: Family substance abuse, peer drug use → increased addiction risk

**Diathesis-Stress Interaction:** Abnormal behaviour results from combination of predisposition (diathesis) + environmental triggers (stress) → explains individual differences in vulnerability

**THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES (Treatment Models)**

**Biological Therapy:**

• Psychopharmacology: Medication management (antidepressants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics, mood stabilisers) → targets neurotransmitter imbalances

• Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): Electric current induces controlled seizure; effective for severe depression, catatonia

• Brain Stimulation: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS), Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)

**Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Therapy:**

• Free Association: Patient says whatever comes to mind → access unconscious

• Dream Analysis: Interpret dreams to reveal unconscious wishes, conflicts

• Transference: Patient transfers emotions/conflicts onto therapist → therapeutic opportunity

• Goal: Make unconscious conscious; resolve repressed conflicts

**Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT):**

• Based on Beck's Cognitive Model: Thoughts → Emotions → Behaviours; change irrational thoughts to change emotions/behaviour

• Cognitive Restructuring: Identify negative automatic thoughts; challenge with evidence; develop realistic thoughts

• Behavioural Techniques: Exposure, activity scheduling, behavioural experiments

• Effective for: Depression, anxiety, OCD, eating disorders, substance abuse

**Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) – Albert Ellis:**

• ABC Model: Activating event → Beliefs (irrational) → Consequences (emotional distress)

• Dispute Irrational Beliefs: Challenge unrealistic, absolutistic thinking (must, should, awfulising)

• Rational Thinking: Replace with flexible, realistic thoughts

**Systematic Desensitisation – Joseph Wolpe:**

• Based on Reciprocal Inhibition: Cannot be anxious and relaxed simultaneously

• Process: Progressive Muscle Relaxation → Anxiety Hierarchy (least to most feared situations) → Gradual exposure while relaxed

• Effective for: Phobias, anxiety disorders

**Exposure Therapy:**

• Prolonged exposure to feared stimulus → extinction of fear response

• In vivo (real-life), Imaginal (imagining), Virtual (VR) exposure

• Effective for: PTSD, phobias, OCD, anxiety disorders

**Humanistic Therapy – Carl Rogers:**

• Unconditional Positive Regard: Accept client without judgment

• Congruence: Therapist authenticity

• Empathy: Understand client's perspective

• Goal: Facilitate self-actualisation, reduce incongruence between real/ideal self

**Group Therapy:**

• Multiple clients in therapeutic setting; peer support, interpersonal learning, sense of belonging

• Types: Psychoeducational (teach coping skills), Support Groups (shared experiences), Process Groups (explore interpersonal patterns)

**Family Therapy:**

• Address family system dynamics, communication patterns, roles

• Types: Structural (Minuchin), Strategic (Haley), Systemic, Narrative

• Effective when family factors contribute to individual psychopathology

**Mindfulness-Based Therapies:**

• Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)

• Present-moment awareness without judgment; reduce rumination, increase acceptance

• Effective for: Depression relapse prevention, anxiety, chronic pain

**ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSIS**

**Clinical Interview:**

• Structured: Follow standardised questions, format → reliable, systematic

• Unstructured: Flexible, exploratory → richer information but less reliable

• Assess: Present complaints, symptom onset, duration, severity, functional impact, medical/psychiatric history, family history, substance use, suicidal ideation

**Psychological Tests:**

• Intelligence Testing (WISC, WAIS): Assess cognitive functioning; identify intellectual disability

• Personality Assessment:

Objective tests: MMPI-2 (self-report questionnaire, 567 items) → identifies psychopathology

Projective tests: Rorschach Inkblot Test (respond to ambiguous stimuli), Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; interpret ambiguous pictures) → reveal unconscious conflicts, thought processes

• Symptom Checklists: PHQ-9 (depression screening), GAD-7 (anxiety screening), PTSD Checklist

**Cognitive Assessment:**

• Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Executive function, cognitive flexibility

• Continuous Performance Test: Sustained attention

• Mini-Cog: Cognitive screening

**Neurobiological Assessment:**

• Brain Imaging: fMRI (brain activity), PET (metabolic activity), CT/MRI (structure)

• EEG: Electrical brain activity patterns

• Neuropsychological Testing: Identify brain dysfunction patterns

**Observation:**

• Direct observation of behaviour in natural/clinical settings

• Assess: Appearance, speech, mood, affect, thought content, judgment, insight

• Rating scales for behaviour (ADHD Rating Scale, Conners Scale)

**CBSE BOARD EXAM TIPS**

• Section A (1 mark): Definitions, Single concept recall → Know Four Ds, distinguish disorder types, key theorist concepts

• Section B (2 marks): Short answers, simple application → Explain symptoms of specific disorder with example; apply model to case

• Section C (3 marks): Short case-based questions → Identify disorder from symptom description; suggest treatment approach; explain using psychological theory

• Section D (4 marks): Extended answers with analysis → Compare disorders; evaluate treatment effectiveness; discuss biopsychosocial factors; analyse case applying multiple concepts

• Section E (5 marks): Case study analysis → Comprehensive analysis using multiple disorders, factors, treatments; critical evaluation of approaches

• Section F (6 marks): Project-based/field work → Interview community member about attitudes toward mental illness; research specific disorder's impact; analyze media portrayal of mental illness

**Common Case Scenarios:**

• Student with exam anxiety → Distinguish GAD from panic disorder; suggest desensitisation technique; discuss cognitive distortions

• Teenager with restrictive eating → Identify anorexia nervosa features; explain biological/psychological factors; propose CBT intervention

• Person with intrusive thoughts + rituals → Define OCD; explain obsession-compulsion cycle; describe exposure + response prevention

• Individual with mood extremes → Differentiate bipolar I/II; describe manic vs. hypomanic episodes; discuss medication + therapy combination

• Trauma survivor with flashbacks → Identify PTSD symptoms; explain diathesis-stress model; suggest EMDR or prolonged exposure therapy

**Key Distinctions for Exams:**

• Stress vs Anxiety: Stress = response to identifiable stressor; Anxiety = anticipatory fear without clear threat

• Phobia vs GAD: Phobia = fear of specific object/situation; GAD = worry about multiple life domains

• OCD vs Generalized Anxiety: OCD = obsessions + compulsions; GAD = worry without compulsive rituals

• Dissociation vs Delusions: Dissociation = disrupted consciousness/memory; Delusions = false fixed beliefs about reality

• Mood vs Affect: Mood = pervasive emotional state over time; Affect = observable emotional expression in moment

• Substance Use Disorder vs Abuse: Current terminology: Substance Use Disorder encompasses both; assess severity (mild, moderate, severe) based on criteria count

**Study Strategy:**

• Create disorder summary cards (name, DSM-5 criteria, symptoms, duration, severity, treatment)

• Distinguish major categories: Anxiety (fear-based), Mood (emotion-regulation), Thought (reality distortion), Developmental (onset, capacity deficits), Substance (controllability issues)

• Link theorists to treatments: Freud → psychoanalysis; Beck → CBT; Rogers → humanistic therapy; Wolpe → systematic desensitisation

• Practice applying concepts to mini-cases from board papers

• Understand biopsychosocial factors for each major disorder

• Memorise DSM-5 duration criteria and severity specifiers

• Connect to real-world mental health (stigma, treatment barriers, public health importance)