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Attitude and Social Cognition

NCERT Class 12 · Psychology Based on NCERT Class 12 Psychology textbook · Free CBSE study kit

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Chapter Notes

Overview
This chapter explores how individuals form views about people and issues, known as attitudes, and how these attitudes influence social behaviour. It explains the nature, components, formation, and change of attitudes, along with the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. The chapter also delves into prejudice and discrimination as negative attitudes, and provides strategies for handling them. The one big idea a student must walk away with is that attitudes are learned tendencies with cognitive, affective, and behavioural components, and understanding their formation and change is key to explaining and improving social behaviour.
Key Concepts (26)
Attitude
A state of the mind, a set of views or thoughts regarding some topic (called the 'attitude object'), which have an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral quality), accompanied by an emotional component and a tendency to act in a particular way with regard to the attitude object.
e.g. A person's positive view towards 'green environment' includes thinking it is good (cognitive), feeling happy seeing greenery (affective), and participating in tree plantation (behavioural).
A-B-C Components of Attitude
The three aspects of an attitude: Affective (emotional component), Behavioural (conative, tendency to act), and Cognitive (thought component).
e.g. For a 'green environment' attitude: Affective = feeling sad when trees are cut; Behavioural = actively planting trees; Cognitive = knowing that greenery is beneficial.
Beliefs
The cognitive component of attitudes, forming the ground on which attitudes stand.
e.g. Belief in God, or belief in democracy as a political ideology.
Values
Attitudes or beliefs that contain a 'should' or 'ought' aspect, such as moral or ethical values, formed when a particular belief or attitude becomes an inseparable part of the person's outlook on life.
e.g. The idea that one should work hard, or that one should always be honest because honesty is the best policy.
Valence (of an attitude)
The positivity or negativity of an attitude towards the attitude object.
e.g. Rating nuclear research as 4 or 5 on a 5-point scale indicates a positive valence; rating it as 1 or 2 indicates a negative valence.
Extremeness (of an attitude)
How positive or negative an attitude is; a rating of 1 or 5 on a 5-point scale is extreme, while a rating of 3 is neutral and lowest on extremeness.
e.g. A rating of 5 for nuclear research is as extreme as a rating of 1, but in opposite directions.
Simplicity or Complexity (Multiplexity) of Attitude
Refers to how many attitudes there are within a broader attitude; an attitude system is 'simple' if it contains only one or a few attitudes, and 'complex' if it is made up of many attitudes.
e.g. Attitude towards health and well-being is complex, consisting of several 'member' attitudes like physical health, mental health, happiness, etc. Attitude towards a particular person is simple, consisting mainly of one attitude.
Centrality (of an attitude)
The role of a particular attitude in the attitude system; an attitude with greater centrality influences other attitudes in the system much more than non-central (or peripheral) attitudes.
e.g. In the attitude towards world peace, a negative attitude towards high military expenditure may be a central attitude that influences all other attitudes in the system.
Attitude Formation
The process by which attitudes are learned through one's own experiences and through interaction with others, involving association, reward and punishment, modelling, group or cultural norms, and exposure to information.
e.g. A student develops a liking for a subject because of a positive association with the teacher who teaches it.
Attitude Change
The modification of attitudes through various influences, including balance, cognitive dissonance, and the two-step concept, influenced by characteristics of the existing attitude, source, message, and target.
e.g. A person who initially has a positive attitude towards dowry may change it to negative after experiencing cognitive dissonance or imbalance in relationships.
Balance (Heider's P-O-X Triangle)
A concept proposed by Fritz Heider where an attitude changes if there is a state of imbalance between the P-O attitude, O-X attitude, and P-X attitude, because imbalance is logically uncomfortable; balance is achieved when all three sides are positive, or two sides are negative and one is positive.
e.g. If P (person) has positive attitude towards dowry (X), and O (another person) has negative attitude towards dowry, and O has positive attitude towards P, the situation is unbalanced; one attitude must change to restore balance.
Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)
A state where two cognitions in an attitude are dissonant (logically inconsistent), leading to a change in one of them in the direction of consonance to reduce mental discomfort.
e.g. Cognition I: 'Pan masala causes mouth cancer which is fatal'; Cognition II: 'I eat pan masala'. To reduce dissonance, the person stops eating pan masala.
Two-Step Concept of Attitude Change (Mohsin)
An Indian psychologist's concept where attitude change takes place in two steps: first, the target identifies with the source (mutual liking and regard), and second, the source shows an attitude change through behaviour, which the target then imitates.
e.g. Preeti identifies with her favourite sportsperson (Step I). The sportsperson changes her own habit of consuming a harmful soft drink (Step II). Preeti then also changes her attitude and stops consuming the soft drink.
Cognitive Consistency
The principle that two components, aspects or elements of an attitude or attitude system must be in the same direction; if not, the person experiences mental discomfort and changes some aspect to restore consistency.
e.g. Both balance and cognitive dissonance are examples of cognitive consistency.
Congruent Attitude Change
An attitude change that occurs in the same direction as the existing attitude (e.g., a positive attitude becomes more positive, or a negative attitude becomes more negative).
e.g. A person with a somewhat positive attitude towards empowerment of women reads about a successful woman and becomes more positive.
Incongruent Attitude Change
An attitude change that occurs in a direction opposite to the existing attitude (e.g., a positive attitude becomes less positive or negative, or a negative attitude becomes less negative or positive).
e.g. After reading about successful women, a person thinks women might become too powerful and neglect family, making their positive attitude less positive or even negative.
Prejudice
A negative attitude towards a particular group, often based on stereotypes (cognitive component), accompanied by dislike or hatred (affective component), and may translate into discrimination (behavioural component).
e.g. Negative attitude towards a particular caste or religious community, assuming all members possess undesirable characteristics.
Discrimination
The behavioural component of prejudice, where people behave in a less positive way towards a particular target group compared to another group which they favour.
e.g. Refusing to give accommodation to Chinese guests, as in LaPiere's study, or denying service based on caste or gender.
Stereotype
A cluster of ideas regarding the characteristics of a specific group, assuming all members belonging to this group possess these characteristics; often consists of undesirable characteristics about the target group.
e.g. Assuming all members of a particular community are dishonest or lazy.
Scapegoating
A phenomenon by which the majority group places the blame on a minority outgroup for its own social, economic or political problems; the minority is too weak or too small to defend itself.
e.g. Blaming immigrants for unemployment or crime in a country.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
A situation where the target group of prejudice behaves in ways that justify the prejudice, confirming the negative expectations and strengthening the existing prejudice.
e.g. If a target group is described as 'dependent' and unable to make progress, its members may actually behave in a way that proves this description true.
Kernel of Truth Concept
The idea that people may continue to hold stereotypes because they think there must be some truth in what everyone says about the other group, even a few examples are sufficient to support this idea.
e.g. Believing a stereotype about a group because a few members of that group exhibited the stereotypical behaviour.
Persuasibility
A quality of the target (person whose attitude is to be changed) that influences the likelihood and extent of attitude change; people with open and flexible personality change more easily.
e.g. Advertisers benefit most from people who are highly persuasible.
Source Credibility
A feature of the source (person delivering the message) that affects attitude change; attitudes are more likely to change when the message comes from a highly credible source.
e.g. Adults planning to buy a laptop are more convinced by a computer engineer than by a schoolchild.
Source Attractiveness
A feature of the source that affects attitude change; popular public figures can increase sales even if they are not experts.
e.g. A sportsperson advertising a soft drink may influence fans more than a nutritionist.
Ingroup Bias
A very positive attitude towards one's own group, which is boosted by holding negative attitudes towards other groups, shown as prejudices.
e.g. Individuals with a strong sense of social identity may hold negative attitudes towards outgroups to enhance their own group's status.
How It Works
Attitude Formation through Association
  1. A person observes positive qualities in another person (e.g., a teacher).
  2. These positive qualities get linked to the attitude object (e.g., the subject taught by the teacher).
  3. The positive association leads to the development of a positive attitude towards the attitude object.
💡 The attitude is formed not because of the object itself, but because of its association with a positively evaluated person.
Attitude Formation through Reward and Punishment
  1. An individual shows a particular attitude or behaviour.
  2. If the individual is praised or rewarded for it, the attitude is strengthened and developed further.
  3. If the individual is punished or experiences negative consequences, a negative attitude towards the associated object is formed.
💡 The consequence (reward or punishment) directly shapes the attitude, not just the behaviour.
Attitude Formation through Modelling (Observing Others)
  1. An individual observes others being rewarded or punished for expressing thoughts or showing behaviour of a particular kind towards the attitude object.
  2. The individual learns the attitude by observing these consequences, without directly experiencing them.
  3. The individual adopts a similar attitude.
💡 The learning happens vicariously, not through direct reward or punishment to the learner.
Attitude Formation through Group or Cultural Norms
  1. Norms (unwritten rules about behaviour) are established within a group or culture.
  2. Individuals observe that such behaviour is shown by others, is expected, and is socially approved.
  3. Over time, these norms become part of social cognition in the form of attitudes.
💡 This process may involve all three forms of learning: association, reward/punishment, and modelling.
Attitude Formation through Exposure to Information
  1. Information is provided through various media (e.g., biographies, news, internet).
  2. The individual processes this information in a social context, not necessarily in the physical presence of others.
  3. Positive or negative attitudes are formed based on the information received.
💡 This process does not require direct interaction with others; media plays a key role.
Attitude Change through Balance (Heider's P-O-X Triangle)
  1. Identify the three components: P (person whose attitude is studied), O (another person), X (attitude object or another person).
  2. Determine the valence (positive or negative) of the three relationships: P-O, O-X, and P-X.
  3. Check for imbalance: imbalance occurs when all three sides are negative, or when two sides are positive and one side is negative.
  4. If imbalance exists, one of the three attitudes must change to restore balance (all three positive, or two negative and one positive).
💡 Imbalance is logically uncomfortable, so the system naturally moves towards balance. Students often forget that all three negative also leads to imbalance.
Attitude Change through Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)
  1. Identify two cognitions (ideas) within an attitude that are logically inconsistent (dissonant).
  2. The individual experiences mental discomfort due to this dissonance.
  3. To reduce dissonance, one of the cognitions is changed in the direction of consonance (logical consistency).
💡 The classic experiment: students paid $1 for lying changed their attitude (found the boring experiment interesting), while those paid $20 did not change their attitude because they had sufficient external justification ($20) for lying.
Attitude Change through Two-Step Concept (Mohsin)
  1. Step I: The target (person whose attitude is to be changed) identifies with the source (person through whose influence change is to take place). Identification means the target has liking and regard for the source, and the regard is mutual.
  2. Step II: The source herself/himself shows an attitude change by actually changing her/his behaviour towards the attitude object.
  3. Observing the source's changed attitude and behaviour, the target also shows an attitude change through behaviour (imitation or observational learning).
💡 The source must change first; the target changes by observing the source's changed behaviour.
Attitude-Behaviour Relationship (Conditions for Consistency)
  1. Check if the attitude is strong and occupies a central place in the attitude system.
  2. Check if the person is aware of her/his attitude.
  3. Check if there is very little or no external pressure for the person to behave in a particular way.
  4. Check if the person's behaviour is not being watched or evaluated by others.
  5. Check if the person thinks the behaviour would have a positive consequence and intends to engage in that behaviour.
💡 Attitudes do not always predict behaviour; behaviour can also determine attitude (as in cognitive dissonance). LaPiere's study showed that hotel managers who refused Chinese guests in questionnaires actually served them in person.
Sources of Prejudice
  1. Learning: Prejudices are learned through association, reward and punishment, observing others, group or cultural norms, and exposure to information.
  2. Strong social identity and ingroup bias: Individuals with strong social identity boost their positive attitude towards their own group by holding negative attitudes towards other groups.
  3. Scapegoating: The majority group blames a minority outgroup for its own problems.
  4. Kernel of truth concept: People hold stereotypes because they believe there must be some truth in what everyone says.
  5. Self-fulfilling prophecy: The target group behaves in ways that justify the prejudice, confirming negative expectations.
💡 Prejudice can exist without discrimination, and discrimination can exist without prejudice.
Strategies for Handling Prejudice
  1. Minimise opportunities for learning prejudices.
  2. Change such attitudes through education and information dissemination to correct stereotypes.
  3. De-emphasise a narrow social identity based on the ingroup.
  4. Discourage the tendency towards self-fulfilling prophecy among victims of prejudice.
  5. Increase intergroup contact in a cooperative context, with close interactions, and when groups are not different in power or status.
  6. Highlight individual identity rather than group identity.
💡 Intergroup contact is successful only under specific conditions: cooperative context, close interactions, and equal power/status.
Exam Traps — Don't Make These Mistakes
⚠ Confusing Beliefs and Values
✗ Students often write that beliefs and values are the same as attitudes, or that values are the same as beliefs.
→ Beliefs are the cognitive component of attitudes and form the ground on which attitudes stand. Values are attitudes or beliefs that contain a 'should' or 'ought' aspect and are difficult to change because they become an inseparable part of the person's outlook on life.
✓ Beliefs are the cognitive foundation of attitudes (e.g., belief in God), while values are beliefs with a moral 'should' or 'ought' aspect (e.g., one should always be honest). Values are more deeply held and harder to change than beliefs.
⚠ Mixing Up Balance and Cognitive Dissonance
✗ Students often write that balance and cognitive dissonance are the same concept, or they use the terms interchangeably.
→ Balance (Heider) involves three components (P, O, X) and focuses on relationships between them. Cognitive dissonance (Festinger) involves two cognitions within an individual's attitude and focuses on logical inconsistency between them. Balance is about interpersonal and attitudinal relationships, while dissonance is about intrapersonal cognitive consistency.
✓ Balance theory explains attitude change in a triadic relationship (P-O-X) where imbalance occurs when all three sides are negative or two are positive and one is negative. Cognitive dissonance explains attitude change when an individual holds two logically inconsistent cognitions, leading to mental discomfort and a change to restore consonance.
⚠ Thinking Attitudes Always Predict Behaviour
✗ Students often write that behaviour always reflects one's attitude, or that attitudes are always consistent with behaviour.
→ LaPiere's study showed that hotel managers who expressed negative attitudes towards Chinese guests in questionnaires actually served a Chinese couple in person. Attitudes may not always predict behaviour due to external pressures, lack of awareness, or weak attitudes.
✓ Attitudes do not always predict behaviour. Consistency between attitude and behaviour occurs when the attitude is strong and central, the person is aware of it, there is little external pressure, behaviour is not being evaluated, and the person intends positive consequences. Behaviour can also determine attitude (as in cognitive dissonance).
⚠ Confusing Prejudice and Discrimination
✗ Students often write that prejudice and discrimination are the same thing, or that prejudice always leads to discrimination.
→ Prejudice is an attitude (cognitive and affective components), while discrimination is the behavioural component. Prejudice can exist without discrimination (e.g., holding negative views but not acting on them), and discrimination can exist without prejudice (e.g., following discriminatory laws without personal bias).
✓ Prejudice is a negative attitude towards a group, often based on stereotypes, and includes cognitive and affective components. Discrimination is the behavioural component, where people behave less positively towards a target group. They often go together but can exist independently.
⚠ Misunderstanding the Two-Step Concept of Attitude Change
✗ Students often write that in the two-step concept, the target changes first, or that the source simply gives information and the target changes.
→ The two-step concept (Mohsin) requires the target to first identify with the source (mutual liking and regard). Then, the source must actually change her/his own behaviour first (Step I). Only after observing the source's changed behaviour does the target change (Step II). It is a process of imitation or observational learning, not just information transmission.
✓ In the two-step concept, Step I involves the target identifying with the source (mutual positive regard). Step II involves the source changing her/his own behaviour first, which the target then observes and imitates, leading to attitude change in the target.
⚠ Forgetting the Conditions for Successful Intergroup Contact
✗ Students often write that simply bringing groups together will reduce prejudice, without mentioning conditions.
→ Intergroup contact is successful only under specific conditions: the two groups meet in a cooperative rather than competitive context, close interactions help them know each other better, and the two groups are not different in power or status. Without these conditions, contact may even increase prejudice.
✓ Intergroup contact reduces prejudice only when: (1) the groups meet in a cooperative context, (2) close interactions occur, and (3) the groups have equal power or status.
Compare & Contrast
Depth and components
Attitude
Opinion
An attitude has three components (affective, behavioural, cognitive) and is accompanied by emotional and action tendencies, whereas an opinion is merely a thought or view without necessarily having emotional or behavioural components. Opinions are more like attitudes in the formative stage and are easier to change.
Nature and components
Prejudice
Stereotype
Prejudice is a negative attitude towards a group, consisting of cognitive (stereotype), affective (dislike/hate), and behavioural (discrimination) components. A stereotype is only the cognitive component of prejudice — a cluster of ideas about the characteristics of a specific group. Prejudice includes an evaluative (negative) and emotional element, while a stereotype is a set of beliefs that may be positive or negative.
Direction of change relative to existing attitude
Congruent Attitude Change
Incongruent Attitude Change
Congruent change occurs in the same direction as the existing attitude (e.g., positive becomes more positive). Incongruent change occurs in the opposite direction (e.g., positive becomes less positive or negative). Congruent changes are generally easier to bring about than incongruent changes.
Scope and focus
Balance (Heider)
Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)
Balance theory focuses on a triadic relationship involving the person (P), another person (O), and an attitude object (X), and deals with interpersonal and attitudinal consistency. Cognitive dissonance focuses on two cognitions within an individual's attitude system and deals with intrapersonal logical consistency. Both are examples of cognitive consistency.
Exam Focus
Marks pattern: 2 MCQs (1 mark each), 1 Short Answer (3 marks), 1 Long Answer (5 marks). Total: 10 marks.
Most asked: A-B-C components of attitude with examples · Attitude formation processes (association, reward/punishment, modelling, norms, information) · Attitude change: Balance theory (P-O-X triangle) and Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger's experiment) · Factors influencing attitude change (source, message, target characteristics) · Prejudice and discrimination: sources and strategies for handling · Attitude-behaviour relationship (LaPiere's study, conditions for consistency)
Don't skip: Explain the A-B-C components of an attitude with a suitable example (3 or 5 marks).; Describe the process of attitude change through cognitive dissonance with reference to Festinger and Carlsmith's experiment (5 marks).; Differentiate between prejudice and stereotype, and discuss strategies for handling prejudice (5 marks).; Explain Heider's balance theory with the help of the P-O-X triangle (3 or 5 marks).
One-Line Revision (read aloud before the exam)
  1. An attitude is a state of the mind with evaluative, emotional, and behavioural tendencies towards an attitude object.
  2. The A-B-C components of an attitude are Affective (emotional), Behavioural (conative), and Cognitive (thought).
  3. Beliefs are the cognitive component of attitudes; values are beliefs with a 'should' or 'ought' aspect and are harder to change.
  4. Attitudes have four properties: valence (positivity/negativity), extremeness, simplicity/complexity (multiplexity), and centrality.
  5. Attitudes are learned through association, reward and punishment, modelling, group or cultural norms, and exposure to information.
  6. Factors influencing attitude formation include family and school environment, reference groups, personal experiences, and media-related influences.
  7. Heider's balance theory states that an attitude changes if there is imbalance in the P-O-X triangle (all three negative, or two positive and one negative).
  8. Cognitive dissonance (Festinger) occurs when two cognitions are logically inconsistent, leading to a change to restore consonance.
  9. In Festinger and Carlsmith's experiment, students paid $1 for lying changed their attitude, while those paid $20 did not.
  10. The two-step concept of attitude change (Mohsin) involves the target identifying with the source, then the source changing behaviour first, followed by the target.
  11. Attitudes do not always predict behaviour; consistency occurs when the attitude is strong, the person is aware, there is little external pressure, and behaviour is not evaluated.
  12. Prejudice is a negative attitude towards a group; discrimination is the behavioural component of prejudice.
  13. Stereotypes are the cognitive component of prejudice — a cluster of ideas about a group's characteristics.
  14. Sources of prejudice include learning, strong social identity/ingroup bias, scapegoating, kernel of truth concept, and self-fulfilling prophecy.
  15. Strategies for handling prejudice include education, intergroup contact (cooperative, close, equal status), and highlighting individual identity.
  16. Congruent attitude change is in the same direction as the existing attitude; incongruent change is in the opposite direction.
  17. Source credibility and attractiveness, message characteristics (rational vs emotional appeal), and target characteristics (persuasibility, self-esteem, intelligence) influence attitude change.
  18. LaPiere's study showed that hotel managers who expressed negative attitudes towards Chinese in questionnaires actually served a Chinese couple in person.

MCQs — 10 Questions with Answers

Q1. According to the A-B-C model of attitudes, which component represents the emotional response to an attitude object?

  • A. Affective component ✓
  • B. Behavioural component
  • C. Cognitive component
  • D. Central component

Answer: A — The affective (A) component represents the emotional feelings towards an attitude object, such as happiness or sadness.

Q2. Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance explains that when two cognitions are inconsistent, a person experiences discomfort and will resolve it by:

  • A. Always changing behaviour to match cognition
  • B. Either changing attitude, changing behaviour, or adding a new cognition ✓
  • C. Ignoring the inconsistency completely
  • D. Seeking external validation for both views

Answer: B — Cognitive dissonance can be resolved through any of the three methods: changing the attitude itself, changing the behaviour, or adding a new cognition.

Q3. Which of the following best describes the fundamental attribution error?

  • A. Blaming ourselves for others' failures
  • B. Overestimating situational factors when judging others' behaviour
  • C. Overestimating dispositional factors and underestimating situational factors when explaining others' behaviour ✓
  • D. Always attributing success to external causes

Answer: C — The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate internal (dispositional) causes and underestimate external (situational) causes when explaining others' behaviour.

Q4. According to Hovland's communication model, attitude change is most likely to occur when:

  • A. The message is long and detailed
  • B. The source is credible, the message is persuasive, and the receiver is open-minded ✓
  • C. The same message is repeated many times
  • D. The message contradicts the receiver's existing beliefs

Answer: B — Hovland's model identifies source credibility, message quality, communication channel, and receiver characteristics as key factors in successful attitude change.

Q5. Which statement is NOT correct regarding attitudes and values?

  • A. Values contain a 'should' or 'ought' component
  • B. Attitudes are easier to change than values
  • C. Both attitudes and values have emotional components
  • D. Beliefs are the same thing as values ✓

Answer: D — Beliefs are the cognitive basis of attitudes; values are attitudes with moral/ethical 'should' components that become central to life outlook and are harder to change.

Q6. The contact hypothesis suggests that prejudice can be reduced when members of different groups interact under conditions of:

  • A. Competitive structure
  • B. Unequal status or hierarchical authority
  • C. Equal status and cooperative goals ✓
  • D. Forced contact regardless of willingness

Answer: C — The contact hypothesis is most effective when groups have equal status, cooperative goals, and voluntary interaction, which breaks down stereotypes.

Q7. A student fails an exam and blames the 'difficult questions' but believes a friend failed because 'they did not study.' This is an example of:

  • A. Fundamental attribution error
  • B. Halo effect
  • C. Actor-observer effect ✓
  • D. Self-serving bias

Answer: C — The actor-observer effect describes the tendency to attribute one's own failure to external (situational) causes while attributing others' failure to internal (dispositional) causes.

Q8. The process by which a person's attitude is formed through pairing of the attitude object with an emotional stimulus (like fear or joy) is called:

  • A. Instrumental conditioning
  • B. Classical conditioning ✓
  • C. Observational learning
  • D. Social learning

Answer: B — In classical conditioning, an attitude object is repeatedly paired with an emotional stimulus, creating an association that shapes attitude formation.

Q9. Which of the following sequences correctly represents the progression from stereotype to discrimination?

  • A. Stereotype (affective) → Prejudice (cognitive) → Discrimination (behavioural)
  • B. Stereotype (cognitive) → Prejudice (affective) → Discrimination (behavioural) ✓
  • C. Discrimination (behavioural) → Prejudice (affective) → Stereotype (cognitive)
  • D. Prejudice (affective) → Stereotype (cognitive) → Discrimination (behavioural)

Answer: B — The correct progression is: stereotype (cognitive belief about group) → prejudice (affective bias/dislike) → discrimination (actual unfair behavioural action).

Q10. In impression formation, the primacy effect and recency effect differ because:

  • A. Primacy effect only works for positive information while recency effect works for negative information
  • B. Primacy effect is when initial information has stronger influence, while recency effect is when later information modifies the impression ✓
  • C. Primacy effect requires emotional involvement while recency effect does not
  • D. Both have equal impact on all types of impressions in all situations

Answer: B — The primacy effect shows that early information shapes the initial impression more strongly, while the recency effect shows that recent information can modify or update that impression.

Flashcards

What are the three components of an attitude?

Cognitive (C) = thoughts and beliefs, Affective (A) = emotions and feelings, Behavioural (B) = tendency to act in a certain way.

Define cognitive dissonance and name its discoverer.

Cognitive dissonance, discovered by Leon Festinger, is the discomfort felt when holding two inconsistent cognitions or attitudes simultaneously.

How can cognitive dissonance be reduced? Name all three ways.

By changing the attitude itself, changing the behaviour to match the attitude, or adding a new cognition that justifies the inconsistency.

What is the fundamental attribution error?

The tendency to overestimate dispositional (internal) causes and underestimate situational (external) causes when explaining others' behaviour.

What is the difference between a stereotype and discrimination?

Stereotype is a cognitive belief about a group, while discrimination is the actual behavioural act of treating someone unfairly based on group membership.

How does Hovland's communication model explain attitude change?

Attitude change depends on source credibility, message quality, communication channel, and receiver characteristics all working together.

What is the contact hypothesis for reducing prejudice?

Increased contact between groups under equal status conditions reduces prejudice by breaking down stereotypes through direct experience.

Define the actor-observer effect.

The tendency to attribute one's own behaviour to external (situational) causes while attributing others' behaviour to internal (dispositional) causes.

Distinguish between beliefs and values.

Beliefs are cognitive; values are beliefs with 'should' or 'ought' components that become central to one's life outlook and are difficult to change.

What is the primacy effect in impression formation?

The tendency for initial information (first impression) to have a stronger influence on impression formation than later information.

Important Board Questions

Define attitude and state the three components of the A-B-C model with one example for each. [2 marks]

Define attitude as evaluative state with cognitive, affective, behavioural components. Example: green environment attitude = thinking trees good (C), feeling happy seeing greenery (A), actively planting trees (B).

Explain Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory and describe three ways a person can reduce the discomfort caused by inconsistent cognitions. Provide an example for at least one method. [5 marks]

Define cognitive dissonance as discomfort from inconsistent cognitions. Three reduction methods: (1) change attitude, (2) change behaviour, (3) add new cognition. Example: smoker who knows smoking is harmful can quit (change behaviour), deny health risk (add cognition), or reduce belief in harm (change attitude).

Analyse the difference between stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. Explain how the contact hypothesis can reduce prejudice, and discuss why education and superordinate goals are important strategies. Support your answer with a real-life Indian example. [6 marks]

Stereotype = cognitive belief; prejudice = affective dislike; discrimination = behavioural unfair treatment. Contact hypothesis: equal-status interaction breaks stereotypes. Education and superordinate goals unite groups. Example: communal violence reduction through inter-community sports tournaments or joint development projects showing shared goals and equal participation.

Assertion-Reason Questions for Attitude and Social Cognition

Q1. Assertion (A):

Attitudes have three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioural, but these three components are always perfectly consistent with each other.

Reason (R):

The A-B-C model assumes that positive thoughts always lead to positive feelings and behaviours towards the attitude object.

Answer: D — A is false but R is true — Both the assertion and reason are false. While attitudes do have three components (cognitive, affective, behavioural), they are not always perfectly consistent. Box 6.1 explicitly states that consistency may not be found in all situations—one component can be strong while others are weak.

Q2. Assertion (A):

According to Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory, people can reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes without changing their actual behaviour.

Reason (R):

Cognitive dissonance occurs when inconsistent cognitions create psychological discomfort, which can be resolved through attitude change.

Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A — Both the assertion and reason are true, and the reason correctly explains why attitude change is a valid dissonance reduction strategy. When behaviours conflict with attitudes, changing the attitude (rather than behaviour) is one of three primary strategies Festinger identified.

Q3. Assertion (A):

Stereotypes are a cognitive component of the prejudice process, while discrimination is the behavioural outcome of prejudice.

Reason (R):

This sequence reflects the progression from stereotype (thought) to prejudice (emotion) to discrimination (action).

Answer: C — A is true but R is false — The assertion is true—stereotypes are cognitive generalisations that precede affective prejudice and behavioural discrimination. However, the reason is incomplete/partially false because it doesn't emphasise that stereotypes generate prejudice, which then leads to discrimination—not just that they exist at different levels.

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Case-Based Questions (CBQ) for Attitude and Social Cognition

Case Study:

A leading health organisation in India launched a campaign to reduce tobacco consumption. The campaign featured testimonials from respected doctors and cricket players, with emotional stories about illness. The message was distributed through television, social media, and community health centres. After six months, surveys showed that people who already opposed smoking increased their opposition, but regular smokers remained largely unchanged. However, when the same message was shared by local community leaders (rather than celebrities), some smokers showed attitude shifts towards reducing consumption.

Q1. According to Hovland's communication model, which factor was most effectively used in the second phase of the campaign?

  • A. Source credibility (local leaders were trusted community figures) ✓
  • B. Message quality (the emotional stories were more detailed)
  • C. Communication channel (community centres are more effective than TV)
  • D. Receiver characteristics (smokers became more open-minded)

Answer: A

Q2. The initial campaign's finding that non-smokers strengthened their opposition while smokers remained unchanged best illustrates:

  • A. Cognitive dissonance—smokers avoided the message to reduce discomfort ✓
  • B. The contact hypothesis failing in attitude change
  • C. Source credibility being irrelevant to attitude change
  • D. Perfect consistency of all three A-B-C components

Answer: A

Q3. Which psychological principle best explains why local community leaders were more effective than celebrities in changing smokers' attitudes?

  • A. The halo effect made celebrities too credible
  • B. Local leaders had higher source credibility for this specific audience ✓
  • C. Emotional appeals only work with non-celebrities
  • D. Regular smokers' attitudes are impossible to change through any method

Answer: B

Q4. If the campaign had included messages about the financial benefits of quitting (appealing to economic values) alongside health benefits, this would represent an attempt to change attitudes by:

  • A. Increasing the extremeness of the attitude
  • B. Adding new cognitions to reduce cognitive dissonance ✓
  • C. Using the contact hypothesis
  • D. Manipulating only the affective component

Answer: B

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Previous Year Questions (PYQ) for Attitude and Social Cognition

Real CBSE board exam questions from past papers — free to attempt.

CBSE 2026 · Set Psychology · 1 mark

Your friend failed an important test. You sit with him/her, listen to his/her feelings, and try to understand the experience without judgement. Which quality are you demonstrating and why?

  • Sympathy – because you feel sorry for your friend's situation.
  • Empathy – because you are trying to understand your friend's feeling from their perspective.
  • Assertiveness – because you are confidentially telling them what to do.
  • Motivation – because you are pushing them to study harder next time.

CBSE 2026 · Set Psychology · 1 mark

According to the concept of balance proposed by Fritz Heider, imbalance is found when: (i) All three sides of the P-O-X triangle are negative. (ii) Two sides of the P-O-X triangle are negative and one side is positive. (iii) Two sides of the P-O-X triangle are positive and one side is negative. (iv) All three sides of the P-O-X triangle are positive.

  • (i) and (ii) only
  • (ii) and (iv) only
  • (i) and (iii) only
  • (ii) only

CBSE 2026 · Set Psychology · 1 mark

In an attitude change, when the change is in the same direction as the existing attitude (for example, a positive attitude may become more positive, or a negative attitude may become more negative), this is called:

  • Congruency
  • Constancy
  • Incongruency
  • Inconstancy

CBSE 2026 · Set Psychology · 2 marks

Specify any two processes, that help in attitude formation and explain how it occurs.

CBSE 2026 · Set Psychology · 4 marks

Prejudice can be difficult to change due to its deep-rooted sources. Imagine you are working on a community outreach programme aiming to reduce prejudice. How would you explain the main causes that lead to development of prejudice?

CBSE 2025 · Set 63_psychology · 1 mark

A researcher is conducting a survey to assess the personality traits of participants. One of the items in the survey asks, "I always help others when they are in need." Which of the following biases is most likely to affect the response to this item?

  • Non-response bias
  • Acquiescence
  • Random responding
  • Social desirability

CBSE 2025 · Set 63_psychology · 1 mark

A person dislikes a type of food, expresses negative opinion about it, and avoids it. Which components of the A-B-C model of attitudes are illustrated in this example?

  • Affective and Cognitive
  • Affective and Behavioural
  • Cognitive and Behavioural
  • Affective, Behavioural and Cognitive

CBSE 2025 · Set 63_psychology · 1 mark

Which method of message transmission is likely to be most effective for creating a positive attitude towards Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS) for young children?

  • Mass media advertisements
  • Pamphlets and brochures
  • Community social workers and doctors talking to people directly
  • Radio announcements

CBSE 2025 · Set 63_psychology · 2 marks

Discuss the difference between a simple and a complex attitude system using the example of attitude towards health and well-being versus attitude towards a particular person.

CBSE 2025 · Set 63_psychology · 4 marks

Describe four methods through which attitudes are formed.

CBSE 2023 · Set 63_Psychology · 1 mark

In the following question, a statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement of Reason (R). Cognitive consistency means that two components in an attitude system must be in the opposite direction. If the two elements are not logically in consonance with each other, it leads to distress in the individual. Select the correct choice.

  • Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and Reason (R) is correct explanation of Assertion (A).
  • Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
  • Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
  • Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

CBSE 2023 · Set 63_Psychology · 1 mark

Ashwin studied with a student from a particular State, was always rude and selfish towards him. Ashwin now does not befriend or employ people from this State as he feels that they are all impolite. This is an example of

  • Self-fulfilling prophecy
  • Kernel of truth
  • Scapegoating
  • Social cognition

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