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The End of Bipolarity

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Chapter Notes

Overview
This chapter explains the collapse of the Soviet Union and the socialist bloc, ending the bipolar Cold War world order. It covers the nature of the Soviet system, the causes of its disintegration, the consequences for world politics, and the painful transition to capitalism through 'shock therapy'. The one big idea a student must walk away with is that the Soviet Union collapsed due to internal weaknesses—economic stagnation, bureaucratic authoritarianism, and rising nationalism—and that its end reshaped global power relations, leaving the US as the sole superpower.
Key Concepts (14)
Second World
The group of countries comprising the Soviet Union and its allied East European states, which had socialist economies and were part of the Soviet bloc.
e.g. Poland, East Germany, and Czechoslovakia were part of the Second World during the Cold War.
Warsaw Pact
A military alliance that held together the Soviet Union and its East European satellite states, with the USSR as its leader.
e.g. The Warsaw Pact was the Soviet counterpart to NATO.
Socialist Bloc
The group of East European countries whose political and economic systems were modelled after the USSR after the Second World War.
e.g. Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria were part of the socialist bloc.
Glasnost
A policy of openness and transparency in government institutions and activities, introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev.
e.g. Glasnost allowed Soviet citizens to openly criticise the government and discuss problems.
Perestroika
A policy of economic and political restructuring introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev to reform the Soviet economy and make it more efficient.
e.g. Perestroika aimed to introduce market-like mechanisms and reduce bureaucratic control.
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
An organisation formed in December 1991 by Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus after the dissolution of the USSR, later joined by other former Soviet republics.
e.g. The CIS was created to manage the transition and maintain some economic and security ties among former Soviet republics.
Shock Therapy
A model of transition from an authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist system, influenced by the World Bank and IMF, involving rapid privatisation, free trade, and deregulation.
e.g. In Russia, shock therapy led to the sale of 90% of state industries to private individuals, often at undervalued prices.
Bipolarity
A distribution of power in the international system where two superpowers—the US and the USSR—dominate world politics.
e.g. The Cold War era was characterised by bipolarity, with the US and USSR leading rival blocs.
Liberal Democracy
A political system characterised by free and fair elections, the rule of law, protection of individual rights, and a multi-party system, which emerged as the dominant model after the Cold War.
e.g. After the Soviet collapse, most post-communist states adopted liberal democratic constitutions.
Nationalism
A strong identification with one's own nation and desire for self-rule, which proved to be the final and most immediate cause for the disintegration of the USSR.
e.g. The Baltic republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) led the independence movements that broke up the Soviet Union.
Collective Security
A system in which an attack on any country is regarded as a threat to all countries and requires a collective response.
e.g. India and Russia both advocate for collective security in a multipolar world order.
Multipolar World Order
An international system where several powers coexist and no single power dominates, with decision-making through strengthened bodies like the UN.
e.g. India and Russia share a vision of a multipolar world order, as opposed to US-dominated unipolarity.
Soviet Bloc
The group of East European countries under Soviet control after the Second World War, bound by the Warsaw Pact and modelled on the Soviet system.
e.g. The Soviet bloc included Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and East Germany.
Near Abroad
A term used by Russia to refer to the former Soviet republics, which it believes should remain under its influence.
e.g. Russia considers Central Asian states like Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan as its 'Near Abroad'.
How It Works
Disintegration of the Soviet Union
  1. 1985: Mikhail Gorbachev elected General Secretary; initiates reforms (perestroika and glasnost).
  2. 1988: Independence movements begin in Lithuania, spread to Estonia and Latvia.
  3. 1989: Soviet Union declares Warsaw Pact members free to decide their own futures; Berlin Wall falls in November.
  4. 1990 February: Gorbachev strips Communist Party of its monopoly on power; permits multi-party politics.
  5. 1990 March: Lithuania becomes first republic to declare independence.
  6. 1990 June: Russian parliament declares its independence from the Soviet Union.
  7. 1991 June: Boris Yeltsin becomes President of Russia.
  8. 1991 August: Communist Party hardliners stage an abortive coup against Gorbachev.
  9. 1991 December: Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine annul the 1922 treaty creating the USSR and establish the CIS.
  10. 1991 December 25: Gorbachev resigns; the Soviet Union ends.
💡 The collapse was not sudden—it was a chain of events triggered by Gorbachev's reforms, which unleashed forces of nationalism and democratisation that became impossible to control.
Shock Therapy Transition
  1. Privatisation of state assets: large state-controlled industries sold to private individuals and companies.
  2. Withdrawal of government subsidies: social welfare systems dismantled, leading to poverty.
  3. Switch to free trade: sudden opening of economies to foreign goods and investment.
  4. Breakup of existing trade alliances: each state linked directly to the West, not to each other.
  5. Adoption of capitalist institutions: private ownership, corporate patterns, and currency convertibility introduced.
💡 Shock therapy was not a smooth transition—it caused economic collapse, hyperinflation, loss of savings, and the rise of a mafia in many post-Soviet states.
Rise of Nationalism and Sovereignty Movements
  1. Gorbachev's reforms loosened central control and allowed open expression of grievances.
  2. Nationalist dissatisfaction grew strongest in the more European and prosperous republics (Russia, Baltic states, Ukraine, Georgia).
  3. These republics felt they were paying too high a price to keep backward areas within the USSR.
  4. Independence declarations began with Lithuania in 1990, followed by others.
  5. The 'tug of war' between reformers and hardliners divided public opinion and weakened Gorbachev's support.
  6. The final blow came when Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus declared the USSR disbanded in December 1991.
💡 Ironically, nationalist unrest was expected in Central Asian republics due to ethnic and religious differences, but it was strongest in the Europeanised republics.
Exam Traps — Don't Make These Mistakes
⚠ Confusing Glasnost and Perestroika
✗ Glasnost means economic restructuring and Perestroika means political openness.
→ The meanings are reversed. Glasnost refers to openness and transparency, while Perestroika refers to economic and political restructuring.
✓ Glasnost is the policy of openness and transparency; Perestroika is the policy of economic and political restructuring.
⚠ Thinking the Soviet Union collapsed only because of Gorbachev's reforms
✗ Gorbachev's reforms alone caused the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
→ While reforms triggered the collapse, internal weaknesses like economic stagnation, bureaucratic authoritarianism, lack of democracy, and rising nationalism were the deeper causes.
✓ The disintegration was caused by a combination of internal weaknesses (economic stagnation, lack of democracy, corruption) and Gorbachev's reforms, which unleashed uncontrollable nationalist and democratic forces.
⚠ Confusing the Warsaw Pact with NATO
✗ The Warsaw Pact was a military alliance led by the US.
→ The Warsaw Pact was led by the USSR, not the US. NATO was the US-led alliance.
✓ The Warsaw Pact was a military alliance led by the Soviet Union, holding together the socialist bloc.
⚠ Assuming shock therapy was successful immediately
✗ Shock therapy quickly led to prosperity and democracy in post-Soviet states.
→ Shock therapy caused economic ruin, hyperinflation, loss of savings, collapse of industries, and rise of authoritarian leaders in many states.
✓ Shock therapy brought disaster: industries collapsed, inflation soared, social welfare was destroyed, and many states became authoritarian.
⚠ Thinking the Cold War ended with the fall of the Berlin Wall alone
✗ The Cold War ended when the Berlin Wall fell in 1989.
→ The fall of the Berlin Wall was a symbolic event, but the Cold War ended with the disintegration of the Soviet Union in December 1991.
✓ The Cold War ended with the disintegration of the Soviet Union in December 1991, though the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 marked the beginning of the end.
Compare & Contrast
Ownership and control of production
Soviet Economy
Capitalist Economy (e.g., US)
In the Soviet economy, land and productive assets were owned and controlled by the state; in a capitalist economy, private ownership is dominant.
Nature of reform
Glasnost
Perestroika
Glasnost refers to political openness and transparency, while Perestroika refers to economic and political restructuring.
Strength and outcome
Nationalism in European Republics
Nationalism in Central Asian Republics
Nationalist dissatisfaction was strongest in the European republics (Russia, Baltic states, Ukraine, Georgia), leading to independence movements; Central Asian republics initially wanted to remain with the Soviet Federation.
Exam Focus
Marks pattern: 2 MCQs (1 mark each), 1 Short Answer (3 marks), 1 Long Answer (5 marks), and sometimes a map-based question (1 mark).
Most asked: Causes of the disintegration of the Soviet Union · Consequences of the disintegration of the Soviet Union · Gorbachev's reforms (Glasnost and Perestroika) · Shock therapy and its consequences · India-Russia relations after the Cold War
Don't skip: Explain the causes of the disintegration of the Soviet Union.; What was shock therapy? Analyse its consequences for post-communist countries.; Discuss the consequences of the end of bipolarity for world politics.; How did India benefit from its relationship with Russia after the Cold War?
One-Line Revision (read aloud before the exam)
  1. The Soviet Union was formed after the 1917 Russian Revolution and was based on socialist ideology with state ownership and one-party rule.
  2. The Warsaw Pact was the military alliance that held the Soviet bloc together.
  3. Gorbachev introduced Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) to reform the Soviet system.
  4. The Berlin Wall, built in 1961, was toppled on 9 November 1989, symbolising the end of the Cold War.
  5. The Soviet Union disintegrated in December 1991 when Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus declared the USSR disbanded.
  6. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was formed after the dissolution of the USSR.
  7. Shock therapy involved rapid privatisation, free trade, and withdrawal of state subsidies, causing economic ruin in many post-Soviet states.
  8. The end of bipolarity left the US as the sole superpower, creating a unipolar world.
  9. India and Russia share a vision of a multipolar world order and have signed over 80 bilateral agreements.
  10. Russia is India's second largest arms market and a key partner in nuclear energy and space technology.
  11. Nationalism in the European republics (Russia, Baltic states, Ukraine, Georgia) was the immediate cause of the Soviet collapse.
  12. The Soviet economy stagnated due to heavy military spending, lack of technology, and bureaucratic inefficiency.
  13. After the Cold War, many East European states joined NATO and the European Union.
  14. Central Asian republics have vast hydrocarbon resources and have become a zone of competition between outside powers.
  15. India's relations with Russia are based on trust, common interests, and a shared history of cooperation during the Cold War.

MCQs — 10 Questions with Answers

Q1. The Berlin Wall was built in which year?

  • A. 1959
  • B. 1961 ✓
  • C. 1963
  • D. 1965

Answer: B — The Berlin Wall was built in 1961 to separate East Berlin from West Berlin and stood for 28 years until November 9, 1989.

Q2. Who became General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1985?

  • A. Boris Yeltsin
  • B. Nikita Khrushchev
  • C. Mikhail Gorbachev ✓
  • D. Leonid Brezhnev

Answer: C — Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary in 1985 and initiated the reform policies of glasnost and perestroika.

Q3. What does 'glasnost' mean?

  • A. Economic restructuring with market reforms
  • B. Openness and freedom of speech in media and politics ✓
  • C. Military alliance between Soviet republics
  • D. Forced collectivisation of agriculture

Answer: B — Glasnost was Gorbachev's policy of openness that allowed free press, political debate, and criticism of the Communist Party.

Q4. The Soviet invasion of which country in 1979 weakened the Soviet system?

  • A. Poland
  • B. Hungary
  • C. Afghanistan ✓
  • D. Czechoslovakia

Answer: C — The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 was an expensive military campaign that significantly weakened the Soviet economy and system.

Q5. In December 1991, which three republics declared that the Soviet Union was disbanded?

  • A. Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan
  • B. Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus ✓
  • C. Russia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan
  • D. Russia, Lithuania, and Latvia

Answer: B — Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus—the three major Slavic republics—declared under Yeltsin's leadership that the Soviet Union no longer existed in December 1991.

Q6. What is 'shock therapy' in the context of post-Soviet Eastern Europe?

  • A. Military intervention to restore communist rule
  • B. Rapid privatisation and immediate price liberalisation that caused economic collapse ✓
  • C. Gradual transition to mixed economy over 20 years
  • D. Soviet subsidies to help Eastern European countries adjust

Answer: B — Shock therapy involved rapid economic reform—sudden privatisation and price liberalisation—that created economic chaos, including a 40% GDP drop in Russia.

Q7. Assertion: The Soviet Union was a state based on socialist ideology and state ownership of property. Reason: The USSR abolished private property and designed an egalitarian society after the 1917 revolution.

  • A. Both assertion and reason are correct; reason explains assertion ✓
  • B. Both assertion and reason are correct; reason does not explain assertion
  • C. Assertion is correct but reason is incorrect
  • D. Assertion is incorrect but reason is correct

Answer: A — The assertion correctly describes the USSR's socialist foundation, and the reason accurately explains why—the 1917 revolution abolished private property to create an egalitarian system.

Q8. Which of the following is NOT a reason for the Soviet Union's economic stagnation in the late 1970s?

  • A. Lag in technology and infrastructure compared to the West
  • B. High cost of arms race with the United States
  • C. Rapid population growth in Central Asian republics ✓
  • D. Consumer goods shortages due to focus on heavy industry

Answer: C — While Soviet republics had different population growth rates, the primary causes of economic stagnation were technology lag, arms race costs, and consumer goods shortages—not population growth.

Q9. Who emerged as a national hero in 1991 by opposing the hardliner coup attempt in the Soviet Union?

  • A. Mikhail Gorbachev
  • B. Boris Yeltsin ✓
  • C. Nikita Khrushchev
  • D. Vladimir Putin

Answer: B — Boris Yeltsin emerged as a national hero by opposing the 1991 Communist Party hardliner coup, won popular election in Russian Republic, and led Soviet dissolution.

Q10. Assertion: Gorbachev's reforms of glasnost and perestroika were intended to end the Soviet Union. Reason: Gorbachev's reforms led to unexpected consequences including Eastern European revolutions and Soviet disintegration.

  • A. Both assertion and reason are correct; reason explains assertion
  • B. Both assertion and reason are correct; reason does not explain assertion
  • C. Assertion is incorrect but reason is correct ✓
  • D. Both assertion and reason are incorrect

Answer: C — Gorbachev intended reforms to strengthen the USSR, not end it; however, the reason is correct—reforms had unintended consequences leading to collapse that he did not anticipate.

Flashcards

When did the Berlin Wall fall?

The Berlin Wall was toppled by the people on 9 November 1989, marking the beginning of the end of the communist bloc.

What was the Soviet Union?

The USSR was a socialist state founded in 1917 based on state ownership of property, a planned economy, and one-party Communist rule.

What is glasnost?

Glasnost was Gorbachev's policy of openness that allowed free press, political debate, and criticism of the Communist Party.

What is perestroika?

Perestroika was Gorbachev's policy of restructuring the Soviet economy by introducing some market elements and decentralising control.

Who was Mikhail Gorbachev?

Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1985 and initiated reforms of glasnost and perestroika to modernise the USSR.

Why did the Soviet Union face economic stagnation?

The USSR lagged behind the West in technology and infrastructure, spent heavily on the arms race, and suffered from the Afghanistan invasion in 1979.

What is shock therapy?

Shock therapy was rapid economic reform in Eastern Europe and Russia after 1991 involving sudden privatisation and price liberalisation that caused economic collapse.

When did the Soviet Union dissolve?

The Soviet Union was officially disbanded in December 1991 when Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus declared the USSR no longer existed.

Who was Boris Yeltsin?

Boris Yeltsin was a Russian politician who became a national hero by opposing the 1991 hardliner coup and later led Russia's independence from the USSR.

How did India respond to Soviet collapse?

India maintained continuity with post-Soviet states through defence cooperation, weapons supplies from Russia, and energy security through oil imports.

Important Board Questions

What is glasnost? Explain its role in the fall of the Soviet Union. [2 marks]

Define glasnost as Gorbachev's policy of openness (free press, debate). Link it to how it allowed criticism of the Communist Party and emboldened people in Eastern Europe to demand change.

Describe the main economic problems faced by the Soviet Union in the late 1970s and 1980s. How did these problems contribute to its collapse? [4 marks]

List: technology lag, arms race costs, Afghanistan drain, consumer goods shortages, productivity decline. Explain how each weakened the system's ability to deliver living standards and compete with the West, making reform seem necessary but also making the system vulnerable to collapse.

Explain the causes and consequences of the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989. How did this event lead to the broader collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and eventually the Soviet Union itself? [6 marks]

Causes: Gorbachev's glasnost, mass demonstrations, economic failure of communist regimes. Consequences: symbolised end of Cold War division, triggered domino effect (Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia fell next), showed people power over military might, and emboldened Soviet republics to seek independence. Link to December 1991 USSR dissolution: loss of Eastern European control weakened Soviet economy and prestige, power shifted to republics, Boris Yeltsin's rise.

Assertion-Reason Questions for The End of Bipolarity

Q1. Assertion (A):

The Berlin Wall was built in 1961 to separate East Berlin from West Berlin and stood for 28 years until it was demolished on 9 November 1989.

Reason (R):

The wall's demolition occurred immediately after the Fall of the Soviet bloc, marking the symbolic end of Cold War bipolarity.

Answer: B — Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A — Both the assertion and reason are true: the Berlin Wall was indeed built in 1961 and stood 28 years until 9 November 1989. However, the reason does not correctly explain the assertion—the wall was demolished because of mass demonstrations and people's demands for freedom, not as a consequence of the broader Soviet bloc's fall. The wall's fall actually preceded and contributed to the broader Soviet collapse, making the causal relationship in the reason backward. The correct relationship is that the wall fell due to immediate popular pressure, and this symbolised the broader changes to come.

Q2. Assertion (A):

Gorbachev's policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) were designed to preserve and reform the Soviet Union in line with Western technological and information revolutions.

Reason (R):

These reforms inadvertently triggered the unintended consequence of the Soviet system's collapse because they enabled mass demonstrations and freedom of expression that could not be suppressed.

Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A — Both the assertion and reason are entirely true, and the reason correctly explains why the assertion occurred. Gorbachev genuinely sought to modernise the USSR through controlled reform, but by allowing greater openness (glasnost), he created space for dissent that destabilised the system. The text explicitly states his reforms 'had some other effects that neither he nor anyone else intended or anticipated.' The reason provides the correct causal mechanism for why reform measures led to dissolution rather than salvation.

Q3. Assertion (A):

The Soviet economic system was characterised by state ownership of productive assets, planned economy controls, and government subsidies for basic necessities including health, education, and childcare.

Reason (R):

This system failed because it was too open to private enterprise competition and lacked sufficient government oversight of economic activities.

Answer: C — A is true but R is false — The assertion is true and accurately describes Soviet economic features. However, the reason is false: the Soviet system collapsed not from excessive private competition (which did not exist) but from insufficient competition, innovation, technological lag, and the burden of military spending without corresponding productivity gains. The problem was too much state control and bureaucracy, not too little government oversight. The reason directly contradicts the actual causes of Soviet economic stagnation.

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Case-Based Questions (CBQ) for The End of Bipolarity

Case Study:

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet citizens faced increasing shortages of consumer goods despite the state's extensive subsidies for health, education, and basic necessities. Productivity in manufacturing and agriculture remained stagnant, while food imports increased annually as domestic production could not meet demand. Simultaneously, the Soviet Union continued massive military expenditure to match US capabilities in the arms race, diverting resources from civilian sectors. A Soviet economist noted that 'wages continued to grow, but technology fell considerably behind the West.' By 1985, when Mikhail Gorbachev assumed power, the contradiction between the state's socialist promises of egalitarianism and the daily reality of shortages and inefficiency had become impossible to ignore.

Q1. Based on the passage, which of the following best explains the paradox of Soviet economic conditions in the early 1980s?

  • A. The Soviet state successfully balanced military spending with consumer goods production.
  • B. Despite state ownership and subsidies, structural misallocation of resources toward military spending and heavy industry prevented the fulfilment of economic promises, causing stagnation and shortages. ✓
  • C. Consumer goods were abundant, but the state deliberately restricted their distribution.
  • D. The Soviet economy was collapsing due to the loss of natural resources.

Answer: B

Q2. If the Soviet state continued wage growth despite falling productivity, what would be the most likely economic consequence for the state's ability to maintain subsidised services?

  • A. Subsidies would expand to cover all consumer needs.
  • B. The gap between wages and productive output would strain the state's fiscal capacity, eventually making subsidies unsustainable. ✓
  • C. Wage growth would automatically increase productivity in all sectors.
  • D. The state would impose price controls on all goods, solving the shortage problem.

Answer: B

Q3. The passage indicates that food imports increased annually while Soviet wages grew. What does this tell us about the relationship between consumer purchasing power and actual goods availability?

  • A. Growing wages meant consumers could easily afford imported food.
  • B. The Soviet state preferred imports over domestic production.
  • C. Food imports were unrelated to Soviet economic problems.
  • D. Growing wages could not translate into actual consumption because domestic production was insufficient; the state could not subsidise shortages indefinitely. ✓

Answer: D

Q4. According to the passage, which factor was most directly responsible for the inability of the Soviet state to sustain its economic promises by 1985?

  • A. Excessive investment in consumer goods industries
  • B. The complete absence of state subsidies for basic services
  • C. Diversion of resources to unsustainable military spending, combined with technological lag and stagnant productivity, creating an impossible fiscal situation ✓
  • D. Western economic sanctions against Soviet trade

Answer: C

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Previous Year Questions (PYQ) for The End of Bipolarity

Real CBSE board exam questions from past papers — free to attempt.

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/3/1 · 2 marks

Name any four republics of the Soviet Union.

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/3/2 · 4 marks

Highlight any four features of the Soviet system that made the life of people difficult.

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/5/1 · 1 mark

Which one of the following was not a republic of the Soviet Union ?

  • Tajikistan
  • Uzbekistan
  • Afghanistan
  • Azerbaijan

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/5/1 · 1 mark

Who among the following was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Soviet Union in 1985 ?

  • Joseph Stalin
  • Mikhail Gorbachev
  • Leonid Brezhnev
  • Nikita Khrushchev

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/5/2 · 1 mark

Who among the following was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Soviet Union in 1985?

  • Joseph Stalin
  • Mikhail Gorbachev
  • Leonid Brezhnev
  • Nikita Khrushchev

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/5/2 · 1 mark

Which one of the following was not a republic of the Soviet Union?

  • Tajikistan
  • Uzbekistan
  • Afghanistan
  • Azerbaijan

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/5/2 · 4 marks

Soviet system was to ensure the welfare of the people. Support the statement with four examples.

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/1/1 · 6 marks

Analyse any three reasons for the disintegration of the Soviet Union.

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/1/3 · 6 marks

How was the Soviet System responsible for the disintegration of USSR? Explain.

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/2/1 · 1 mark

Identify the correct trio of Baltic Republics:

  • Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania
  • Slovenia, Estonia, Lithuania
  • Slovenia, Romania, Estonia
  • Estonia, Romania, Latvia

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/2/1 · 1 mark

Which one of the following is NOT a consequence of 'Shock Therapy'?

  • The value of the Rouble, the Russian currency declined.
  • The economy of the entire region was ruined.
  • The system of social welfare got strengthened.
  • The collective farm system disintegrated.

CBSE 2026 · Set 59/2/1 · 4 marks

Why could the reforms initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev not save the disintegration of Soviet Union? Explain any two reasons.

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Class 12 Political Science Previous Year Questions, Chapter-wise

All 761 CBSE board questions from 2022–2026, sorted by chapter and question type. Free PDF download.

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