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Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

NCERT Class 12 · History Based on NCERT Class 12 History textbook · Free CBSE study kit

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Chapter Notes

Overview
This chapter explores the social history of early Indian societies (c. 600 BCE–600 CE) by analyzing texts like the Mahabharata, Dharmasutras, and inscriptions. It examines how kinship, marriage rules, caste (varna and jati), and class were shaped by Brahmanical norms, yet also contested and adapted in practice. The one big idea is that social hierarchies were not static or universally followed—they were negotiated, challenged, and varied across regions and communities.
Key Concepts (24)
Patriliny
Tracing descent from father to son, grandson, and so on; a system where sons inherit the father's resources, including the throne.
e.g. In the Mahabharata, after the Kuru war, patrilineal succession was proclaimed, meaning the throne passed from father to son.
Matriliny
Tracing descent through the mother.
e.g. Some communities in south India practice matriliny, though it was rare in early Indian ruling dynasties.
Exogamy
Marriage outside a defined social unit, such as a kin group, gotra, or village.
e.g. Brahmanical texts recommended marrying daughters into families outside the kin group to avoid endogamy.
Endogamy
Marriage within a defined social unit, such as a kin group, caste, or locality.
e.g. Satavahana rulers married women from the same gotra, which was an endogamous practice contrary to Brahmanical norms.
Gotra
A Brahmanical classification system where each gotra is named after a Vedic seer; all members are considered his descendants.
e.g. Women were expected to give up their father's gotra and adopt their husband's gotra upon marriage.
Metronymics
Names derived from the mother's name.
e.g. Satavahana kings used titles like 'Gotami-puta' meaning 'son of Gotami'.
Varna
The four-fold hierarchical social order laid down in Brahmanical texts: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra.
e.g. The Purusha Sukta hymn describes the Brahmana as the mouth, Kshatriya as the arms, Vaishya as the thighs, and Shudra as the feet of the primeval man.
Jati
A social category based on birth, often linked to occupation; unlike varna, the number of jatis was not fixed.
e.g. Nishadas (forest dwellers) and suvarnakaras (goldsmiths) were classified as jatis.
Shreni
A guild or association of merchants, craftspeople, or artisans sharing a common occupation.
e.g. The Mandasor inscription records a guild of silk weavers who migrated from Lata to Dashapura.
Stridhana
A woman's wealth, typically gifts received at marriage, which she could retain and pass to her children without her husband's claim.
e.g. According to Manusmriti, women could acquire stridhana from their father, mother, brother, or husband.
Chandala
A social group considered 'untouchable' in Brahmanical texts, associated with polluting tasks like handling corpses.
e.g. Manusmriti prescribed that chandalas must live outside the village, use discarded utensils, and wear clothes of the dead.
Mlechchha
A term used by Brahmanas to describe outsiders or barbarians, often those who did not speak Sanskrit or follow Brahmanical norms.
e.g. Shakas from Central Asia were regarded as mlechchhas, yet Rudradaman rebuilt the Sudarshana lake and used Sanskrit.
Kula
Sanskrit term for family.
e.g. The Mahabharata describes the Kuru kula (family) and its internal conflicts.
Jnati
Sanskrit term for the larger network of kinfolk.
e.g. The term jnati appears in texts to denote relatives beyond the immediate family.
Vamsha
Sanskrit term for lineage.
e.g. Ruling dynasties claimed patrilineal vamsha to legitimize succession.
Polygyny
The practice of a man having several wives.
e.g. Satavahana rulers were polygynous, as seen from inscriptions listing multiple wives.
Polyandry
The practice of a woman having several husbands.
e.g. The Mahabharata mentions Draupadi as the common wife of the five Pandavas, an example of polyandry.
Kanyadana
The gift of a daughter in marriage, considered an important religious duty of the father.
e.g. Manusmriti lists kanyadana as the first and most meritorious form of marriage.
Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras
Sanskrit texts compiled from c. 500 BCE that laid down codes of social behaviour, especially for Brahmanas.
e.g. The Manusmriti (c. 200 BCE–200 CE) is the most important Dharmashastra.
Purusha Sukta
A hymn in the Rigveda describing the cosmic sacrifice of Purusha, from whose body the four varnas originated.
e.g. Brahmanas cited this hymn to claim that the varna order was divinely ordained.
Critical Edition
A scholarly edition of the Mahabharata prepared by comparing Sanskrit manuscripts from across India to identify common verses.
e.g. The project led by V.S. Sukthankar (1919–1966) took 47 years and produced over 13,000 pages.
Narrative vs Didactic
Narrative sections contain stories; didactic sections contain prescriptions about social norms.
e.g. The Bhagavad Gita is a didactic section; the story of Ekalavya is a narrative section.
Suta
Charioteer-bards who composed poems celebrating Kshatriya warriors' victories.
e.g. The original Mahabharata story was likely composed by sutas.
Mahasammata
The 'great elect' — a king chosen by the people in Buddhist social contract theory.
e.g. According to the Sutta Pitaka, the first king was elected to maintain order in exchange for a share of rice.
How It Works
Preparation of the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata
  1. Collect Sanskrit manuscripts of the Mahabharata from different parts of India, written in various scripts.
  2. Compare verses from each manuscript to identify common elements.
  3. Select verses that appear in most versions as the main text.
  4. Document regional variations in footnotes and appendices.
  5. Publish the edition in multiple volumes (over 13,000 pages).
💡 The critical edition revealed both common elements across India and enormous regional variations, reflecting dialogues between dominant traditions and local practices.
Brahmanical Strategies to Enforce Varna Norms
  1. Assert that the varna order is of divine origin (e.g., citing the Purusha Sukta).
  2. Advise kings to enforce these norms within their kingdoms.
  3. Persuade people that status is determined by birth.
  4. Reinforce prescriptions through stories in texts like the Mahabharata.
💡 These strategies were not always successful; many groups questioned or rejected Brahmanical norms.
Buddhist Social Contract Theory (Origin of Kingship)
  1. Originally, humans lived in an idyllic state, taking only what they needed.
  2. Gradually, greed, deceit, and conflict emerged.
  3. People decided to select a being to punish wrongdoers and maintain order.
  4. They agreed to give this 'great elect' (mahasammata) a share of rice as payment.
  5. Thus, kingship was based on human choice, not divine will.
💡 This theory implies that social institutions are human creations and can be changed.
Historians' Method for Analyzing Texts (e.g., Mahabharata)
  1. Identify the language of the text (Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Tamil).
  2. Determine the type of text (mantra, story, didactic).
  3. Investigate the author(s) and their perspectives.
  4. Identify the intended audience.
  5. Ascertain the date and place of composition.
  6. Analyze content only after these assessments.
💡 Historians do not take texts at face value; they consider who wrote what, for whom, and why.
Stages of Composition of the Mahabharata
  1. c. 500 BCE onwards: Original story composed orally by sutas (charioteer-bards).
  2. c. 500 BCE–200 BCE: Brahmanas began committing it to writing.
  3. c. 200 BCE–200 CE: Worship of Vishnu grew; Krishna identified with Vishnu; text expanded.
  4. c. 200–400 CE: Large didactic sections (like Manusmriti) added; text grew to ~100,000 verses.
💡 The Mahabharata was composed over about 1,000 years, with multiple layers of authorship.
Exam Traps — Don't Make These Mistakes
⚠ Confusing Patriliny with Matriliny
✗ Patriliny means tracing descent through the mother.
→ Patriliny is descent through the father; matriliny is through the mother. Students often reverse the two.
✓ Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson, and so on. Matriliny means tracing descent through the mother.
⚠ Thinking Gotra Rules Were Universally Followed
✗ All women in early India adopted their husband's gotra after marriage.
→ Satavahana inscriptions show women retained their father's gotra names, indicating that Brahmanical rules were not always followed.
✓ Brahmanical texts expected women to adopt their husband's gotra, but inscriptions show that some women, like those of the Satavahanas, retained their father's gotra.
⚠ Equating Varna and Jati
✗ Varna and jati are the same thing.
→ Varna is a four-fold theoretical division; jati is a more flexible, occupation-based category with no fixed number.
✓ Varna is a four-fold hierarchical order (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra), while jati refers to numerous birth-based groups, often linked to occupation.
⚠ Assuming All Kings Were Kshatriyas
✗ Only Kshatriyas could be kings in early India.
→ Many rulers, like the Shungas (Brahmanas) and Shakas (mlechchhas), were not Kshatriyas. Political power was open to those who could muster support.
✓ According to Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings, but in practice, rulers from other backgrounds (e.g., Brahmanas, mlechchhas) also held power.
⚠ Misinterpreting Metronymics as Matriliny
✗ Satavahana rulers used metronymics, so they followed matriliny.
→ Metronymics (names derived from mother) do not imply matriliny; succession was patrilineal among the Satavahanas.
✓ Satavahana rulers used metronymics like 'Gotami-puta' (son of Gotami), but succession to the throne was patrilineal.
⚠ Thinking the Mahabharata Is a Single Author Work
✗ The Mahabharata was written by Vyasa alone.
→ The text was composed over ~1,000 years by multiple authors: initially sutas, then Brahmanas, with later additions.
✓ The Mahabharata is traditionally attributed to Vyasa, but it was composed over centuries by various authors, including sutas and Brahmanas.
Compare & Contrast
Descent system
Patriliny
Matriliny
Patriliny traces descent through the father (son inherits); matriliny traces descent through the mother.
Marriage rules
Exogamy
Endogamy
Exogamy requires marrying outside a social unit (e.g., gotra); endogamy requires marrying within the unit (e.g., kin group).
Social classification
Varna
Jati
Varna is a fixed four-fold theoretical order; jati is a flexible, occupation-based category with no fixed number.
Origin of kingship
Brahmanical View of Kingship
Buddhist View of Kingship
Brahmanical texts claim kings should be Kshatriyas by birth; Buddhist texts propose kingship as a social contract (mahasammata) based on human choice.
Exam Focus
Marks pattern: 2 MCQs (1 mark each), 1 SA (3 marks), 1 LA (5 marks) — total 10 marks typically.
Most asked: Patriliny and its reinforcement in the Mahabharata · Gotra rules and Satavahana inscriptions (metronymics) · Varna order and the Purusha Sukta · Non-Kshatriya kings (Mauryas, Shungas, Shakas) · Jati and social mobility (Mandasor inscription) · Chandalas and untouchability · Buddhist critique of varna (Majjhima Nikaya story) · Critical Edition of the Mahabharata
Don't skip: Long answer question on the role of the Mahabharata in understanding social norms (5 marks); Source-based question on Satavahana inscriptions or Manusmriti (3 marks)
One-Line Revision (read aloud before the exam)
  1. Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, reinforced by the Mahabharata story of the Kuru war.
  2. Exogamy is marriage outside the kin group; endogamy is marriage within it.
  3. Gotra is a Brahmanical classification named after a Vedic seer; women were expected to adopt their husband's gotra.
  4. Satavahana rulers used metronymics like 'Gotami-puta' but succession was patrilineal.
  5. Varna is a four-fold divine order (Purusha Sukta); jati is a flexible, occupation-based category.
  6. The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata was prepared by V.S. Sukthankar and took 47 years.
  7. Non-Kshatriya kings included the Shungas (Brahmanas) and Shakas (mlechchhas).
  8. Chandalas were considered 'untouchable' and forced to live outside villages, as per Manusmriti.
  9. Buddhists rejected birth-based status and proposed a social contract origin of kingship.
  10. Stridhana is a woman's wealth from marriage gifts, which her husband could not claim.
  11. The Mahabharata was composed over ~1,000 years by sutas and Brahmanas, not a single author.
  12. The Mandasor inscription records silk weavers who migrated and built a sun temple, showing jati mobility.
  13. Polygyny (multiple wives) was practiced by Satavahana rulers; polyandry (multiple husbands) is seen in Draupadi's marriage.
  14. Historians analyze texts by considering language, author, audience, date, and purpose before using them as evidence.

MCQs — 10 Questions with Answers

Q1. Who led the Critical Edition project of the Mahabharata beginning in 1919?

  • A. V.S. Sukthankar ✓
  • B. Mortimer Wheeler
  • C. John Marshall
  • D. Radcliffe

Answer: A — V.S. Sukthankar, a noted Indian Sanskritist, initiated the Critical Edition project that collected and compared Sanskrit manuscripts across the subcontinent over 47 years.

Q2. What does the term 'patriliny' mean in the context of early Indian kinship systems?

  • A. Descent traced through the mother's line
  • B. Descent traced from father to son to grandson, with sons inheriting father's resources and throne ✓
  • C. Marriage within the same kinship group
  • D. The practice of exchanging gifts between families

Answer: B — Patriliny is the system where descent is traced patrilineally, ensuring sons inherit their father's wealth and political power, reinforced by the Mahabharata narrative.

Q3. Which of the following is NOT a valid textual source for reconstructing early Indian kinship systems according to historians?

  • A. Sanskrit normative texts like the Rigveda
  • B. Buddhist texts in Pali and Jain texts in Prakrit
  • C. Tamil devotional poetry of Alvars and Nayanars
  • D. Modern Indian newspaper articles from the 19th century ✓

Answer: D — Early Indian kinship is reconstructed from ancient texts (Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Tamil); modern newspapers are not primary sources for the 600 BCE–600 CE period.

Q4. The Mahabharata was composed over approximately how many years?

  • A. 100 years (c. 500–400 BCE)
  • B. 500 years (c. 500–0 BCE)
  • C. 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE onwards) ✓
  • D. 2,000 years (c. 500 BCE–1500 CE)

Answer: C — The Mahabharata in its present form has over 100,000 verses and was composed over about 1,000 years beginning c. 500 BCE; some stories may have circulated even earlier.

Q5. Which statement best explains why early historians initially made mistakes when studying social history from Sanskrit texts?

  • A. They compared texts from different regions too carefully
  • B. They took normative Sanskrit texts at face value, believing everything prescribed was actually practised ✓
  • C. They focused too much on Tamil and Prakrit sources
  • D. They ignored the Mahabharata as a historical source

Answer: B — Nineteenth and twentieth-century historians mistakenly assumed that norms laid down in Brahmanical Sanskrit texts reflected actual social practices; later scholars using Pali, Prakrit, and Tamil texts found these norms were questioned and rejected.

Q6. According to the Rigveda mantra cited in the text, what was the explicit purpose of the marriage ritual?

  • A. To unite two families through gift exchange
  • B. To ensure the woman would have 'fine sons' and be fortunate in her husband's love, firmly binding her to secure patrilineal succession ✓
  • C. To prepare the woman for religious duties in the household
  • D. To establish the woman's property rights independently

Answer: B — The Rigveda mantra explicitly states the priest binds the woman 'firmly' so she will have 'fine sons' and be fortunate in her husband's love, securing patrilineal descent and male inheritance.

Q7. Which of the following best describes the significance of the regional variations documented in the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata?

  • A. They prove that the Mahabharata was not a reliable historical source
  • B. They show that Sanskrit manuscripts were copied incorrectly across regions
  • C. They reveal how dominant Brahmanical traditions dialogued with resilient local ideas and practices across the subcontinent ✓
  • D. They indicate that only the Kashmir and Kerala versions were authentic

Answer: C — The Critical Edition found enormous regional variations (occupying over half its 13,000 pages), reflecting complex dialogues between dominant traditions and local ideas—characterised by both conflict and consensus.

Q8. Both patriliny was universal in early India AND women never exercised political power. Assess this statement.

  • A. Both statements are correct
  • B. The first is correct, but the second is incorrect—Prabhavati Gupta exercised power
  • C. The first is incorrect—there were variations like matriliny and other kinsmen's succession; the second is also incorrect ✓
  • D. Both statements are incorrect

Answer: C — Patriliny was dominant but had variations: sometimes no sons existed, brothers succeeded each other, other kinsmen claimed thrones; and women like Prabhavati Gupta exercised power in exceptional circumstances.

Q9. The Critical Edition project (1919–1966) by V.S. Sukthankar involved comparing Sanskrit manuscripts from different regions to identify common elements and variations. Based on this approach, which conclusion would historians draw about the relationship between Brahmanical norms and local practices?

  • A. Local practices perfectly matched Brahmanical prescriptions everywhere
  • B. Brahmanical norms were completely rejected in all regions
  • C. Brahmanical traditions were authoritative but also questioned and occasionally rejected, with local variations shaping how they were transmitted and practised ✓
  • D. Regional variations prove the Mahabharata was not originally composed by Brahmanas

Answer: C — The Critical Edition's findings, combined with evidence from Pali, Prakrit, and Tamil texts, show that Brahmanical norms were recognised as authoritative but also contested—illustrating a complex dialogue between dominant and local traditions.

Q10. If a historian were studying family structures in early India (600 BCE–600 CE) and found that in some Tamil texts women inherited property and made decisions independently, while Sanskrit texts prescribed strict patriliny and female subordination, what would this reveal about the limitations of relying solely on Sanskrit sources?

  • A. Tamil texts are unreliable and should be ignored
  • B. Sanskrit prescriptions accurately reflected all social practices across the subcontinent
  • C. Relying only on Sanskrit sources would miss regional diversity, alternative practices, and the gap between prescribed norms and lived reality—requiring comparison with Tamil, Pali, and Prakrit sources ✓
  • D. Early Indian society had no consistent kinship system

Answer: C — This scenario illustrates the historian's critical caution articulated in the text: Sanskrit texts prescribe norms for specific groups; comparing with Tamil, Pali, and Prakrit texts reveals they were questioned, rejected, and varied regionally—masking this gap leads to false conclusions about 'universal' practices.

Flashcards

Who led the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata project starting 1919?

V.S. Sukthankar, a noted Indian Sanskritist, led the project which took 47 years to complete and collected Sanskrit manuscripts from across the subcontinent.

What does 'patriliny' mean in the context of early Indian kinship?

Patriliny is the system of tracing descent from father to son to grandson, where sons inherit their father's resources and throne.

What is the central story of the Mahabharata about?

It describes a feud over land and power between two groups of cousins—the Kauravas and Pandavas—of the ruling Kuru family, ending with the Pandavas' victory and affirmation of patrilineal succession.

Name three types of textual sources historians use to reconstruct early Indian kinship systems.

Sanskrit normative texts (like Rigveda and Manu Smriti), Buddhist/Jain texts in Pali and Prakrit, and Tamil devotional literature (Alvars and Nayanars).

What is the Critical Edition and why is it important for understanding social history?

The Critical Edition compared Sanskrit manuscripts from all regions and documented both common elements and regional variations, revealing how dominant traditions dialogued with local ideas over centuries.

According to the Rigveda mantra on marriage, what was the purpose of marrying a woman?

The mantra states a woman should bear 'fine sons' and be fortunate in her husband's love, binding her firmly to secure patrilineal succession.

What is the difference between 'kula' and 'jnati' in Sanskrit kinship terminology?

Kula refers to an individual family unit, while jnati refers to the larger network of kinfolk or relatives connected by blood.

Why do historians need to be careful when using Sanskrit normative texts as historical sources?

Because these texts were written by Brahmanas and prescribed ideal norms that were not always followed in practice—people questioned, ignored, or rejected these rules.

Name one exceptional circumstance where a woman exercised political power in early India despite patrilineal norms.

Prabhavati Gupta ruled during the early period, an exception to patrilineal succession that shows norms were not universally applied.

What does 'vamsha' mean in the context of early Indian kinship?

Vamsha refers to lineage or the line of descent tracing a ruling family's ancestry, such as the Kuru vamsha in the Mahabharata.

Important Board Questions

Define 'patriliny' and give one example from the Mahabharata of how this system shaped succession in early ruling families. [2 marks]

Define patriliny as descent from father to son; use the Mahabharata feud—Kauravas vs Pandavas—where Pandavas' victory affirmed patrilineal succession and sons' right to inherit the throne and father's resources.

Explain with justification why historians cannot rely solely on Sanskrit normative texts (like the Rigveda or Manu Smriti) to reconstruct early Indian kinship systems. Provide one textual alternative and explain what it reveals. [5 marks]

Argue that Sanskrit texts prescribe norms (ideal behaviour), not describe actual practices; they reflect Brahmanical perspectives and were often questioned or rejected. Use Buddhist/Jain texts (Pali, Prakrit) or Tamil texts as alternatives showing how these norms were challenged, rejected, or varied regionally—proving gap between prescribed and lived reality.

The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata (1919–1966) by V.S. Sukthankar compared Sanskrit manuscripts from Kashmir to Kerala and found both common core elements and enormous regional variations. Analyse what this methodological approach reveals about the relationship between dominant Brahmanical traditions and local social practices in early India (600 BCE–600 CE). How does this challenge historians' earlier understanding of kinship systems? [6 marks]

Structure: (1) Sukthankar's method—collected, compared, identified common verses + regional variations across subcontinent; (2) Significance—variations (>50% of 13,000 pages) show dialogue between dominant and local traditions; (3) Challenge to earlier historians—they wrongly assumed Sanskrit norms = universal practice; (4) Conclusion—kinship systems were not static or uniform; local resilience shaped how Brahmanical patriliny was adopted, adapted, or rejected regionally; evidence from Tamil, Pali, Prakrit texts confirms this complexity.

Assertion-Reason Questions for Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

Q1. Assertion (A):

The Mahabharata was composed over approximately 1,000 years beginning around 500 BCE.

Reason (R):

Some stories contained in the Mahabharata may have been in circulation even before the epic's composition began.

Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A — Both statements are true, and the reason correctly explains the assertion by indicating that oral traditions preceded the written epic composition, supporting the long compositional timeline needed to incorporate pre-existing stories.

Q2. Assertion (A):

Patriliny became the dominant succession system among ruling dynasties from the sixth century BCE onwards.

Reason (R):

The Mahabharata explicitly describes a battle between the Kauravas and Pandavas, after which patrilineal succession was proclaimed.

Answer: B — Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A — Both statements are true—patriliny did become dominant among ruling dynasties, and the Mahabharata does contain the narrative described. However, the reason is not the correct explanation for the assertion. The epic's narrative reinforced patriliny ideologically, but the actual adoption by dynasties was driven by multiple political and economic factors, not solely by the epic's description.

Q3. Assertion (A):

The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata proved that all Sanskrit manuscripts of the epic were identical across the subcontinent.

Reason (R):

Scholars collected manuscripts from Kashmir and Nepal in the north to Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south.

Answer: D — A is false but R is true — The assertion is false—the Critical Edition actually revealed 'enormous regional variations' in how the text was transmitted, not uniformity. The reason is true (manuscripts were collected from various regions) but does not support the false assertion.

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Case-Based Questions (CBQ) for Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

Case Study:

A modern historian studying marriage practices in early India examines three sources: (1) the Rigvedic mantra prescribing that women should produce 'fine sons,' (2) Tamil Alvar and Nayanar texts mentioning women saints and religious leaders, (3) Buddhist texts describing women as donors and patrons of monasteries. The historian notes that while Sanskrit texts emphasize women's reproductive role within patriarchal families, other textual traditions simultaneously record women as religious authorities, donors, and spiritual practitioners. This suggests that textual prescriptions and actual social practices operated within a complex relationship rather than maintaining simple correspondence.

Q1. What does the evidence of multiple textual traditions reveal about women's roles in early Indian society?

  • A. Women had identical status across all regions and communities regardless of textual tradition
  • B. Sanskrit texts alone provide complete and accurate information about women's experiences
  • C. Regional and religious traditions recorded diverse women's roles that sometimes contradicted the narrow reproductive ideal emphasized in Sanskrit prescriptions ✓
  • D. Women had no role in religious or economic life in early India

Answer: C

Q2. Which methodological principle does this historian's approach best illustrate?

  • A. Accept only Sanskrit texts as authoritative sources
  • B. Examine multiple textual traditions to understand the gap between normative prescriptions and diverse historical practices ✓
  • C. Reject all textual evidence as unreliable
  • D. Assume that Vedic practices remained unchanged throughout the period

Answer: B

Q3. Based on the passage, why is relying solely on Sanskrit normative texts inadequate for reconstructing women's social history?

  • A. Sanskrit was never written down
  • B. Sanskrit texts only represent elite Brahmanical perspectives and may not capture the full range of women's actual activities and statuses documented in other traditions ✓
  • C. Women mentioned in Sanskrit texts are always fictional characters
  • D. Tamil and Buddhist texts were written centuries before Sanskrit texts

Answer: B

Q4. The historian's conclusion that textual prescriptions and practices 'operate within a complex relationship' most directly supports which principle of historical analysis discussed in the chapter?

  • A. Social histories develop through dialogues between dominant traditions and local/alternative ideas, with moments of both conflict and consensus ✓
  • B. All historical events can be explained through single textual sources
  • C. Textual prescriptions always determine actual behavior
  • D. Regional variations are errors in manuscript copying and should be disregarded

Answer: A

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Previous Year Questions (PYQ) for Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

Real CBSE board exam questions from past papers — free to attempt.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/4/1 · 1 mark

Identify the ancient rulers of India from the given options using the provided information. • They belonged to important ruling lineage. • They were the immediate successors of the Mauryas. • They were Brahmanas.

  • Mauryas and Guptas
  • Nandas and Cholas
  • Satavahanas and Kushanas
  • Shungas and Kanvas

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/1/1 · 3 marks

"Ashoka's inscriptions are the most significant sources to understand the administration of Ashoka." Explain the statement.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/1/1 · 8 marks

"There were specific features of the familial relationship during the Mahabharata period." Explain the statement with examples.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/2/1 · 1 mark

Which one of the following is a correct statement regarding the codes of social behaviour as laid down in Dharamasutras and Dharmashastras during the period of Mahabharata?

  • These norms were to be followed by the Brahmins only.
  • These norms were being followed universally.
  • These norms were not followed universally.
  • Only the rulers followed these norms.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/2/2 · 1 mark

Which one of the following dynasties did Queen Prabhavati belong to?

  • Kanvas
  • Shakas
  • Vakataka
  • Maurya

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/2/3 · 1 mark

Which one of the following is a correct statement regarding the codes of social behaviour as laid down in Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras during the period of Mahabharata?

  • These norms were to be followed by the Brahmins only.
  • These norms were being followed universally.
  • These norms were not followed universally.
  • Only the rulers followed these norms.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/4/2 · 1 mark

Why is Mahabharata called a dynamic text? Choose the most suitable option from the following.

  • It remains unchanged and consistent in all versions.
  • It has been reinterpreted across various contexts.
  • It focuses solely on historical facts.
  • It is a fixed text with no variations over time.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/4/2 · 3 marks

"Historians consider several elements when they analyse the Mahabharata." Substantiate the statement with suitable examples.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/4/3 · 3 marks

"Many communities during the Mahabharata period had different social practices from Brahmanical ideas." Substantiate the statement with examples.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/4/3 · 3 marks

In what ways do the Jain teachings influence the ethical and spiritual practices of the believers? Explain with examples.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/5/1 · 1 mark

Identify the ancient Indian text with the help of the following information: • Sanskrit text compiled between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE. • Provided a comprehensive code of laws. • Offered guidelines on various aspects of social life.

  • Manusmriti
  • Ramayana
  • Upanishads
  • Vedas

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/5/1 · 3 marks

Describe different patterns of marriages that influenced familial relations during the Mahabharata period.

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Class 12 History Previous Year Questions, Chapter-wise

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