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Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation

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Chapter Notes

Overview
This chapter explores the Harappan or Indus Valley Civilisation, one of the world's earliest urban cultures, through archaeological evidence. It covers its chronology, subsistence strategies, urban planning at Mohenjodaro, social differences, craft production, trade, seals, script, weights, and theories of its decline. The one big idea is that material remains—bricks, beads, bones, seals, and tools—allow archaeologists to reconstruct the life, economy, and society of a civilisation that left no deciphered written records.
Key Concepts (17)
Harappan Civilisation
Also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation, it is an ancient urban civilisation that flourished in the Indus and Saraswati river basins from approximately 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE (Mature Harappan phase).
e.g. The cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa are the most well-known sites of this civilisation.
Steatite
A soft stone used to make Harappan seals, often carved with animal motifs and undeciphered script.
e.g. The distinctive Harappan seal (Fig. 1.1) is made of steatite.
Citadel
The smaller, higher, walled section of a Harappan city, built on mud brick platforms, containing public structures like the Great Bath and warehouse.
e.g. At Mohenjodaro, the Citadel is physically separated from the Lower Town.
Lower Town
The larger, lower section of a Harappan city, also walled, containing residential buildings with courtyards, wells, and connected drains.
e.g. The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro had houses with bathrooms and staircases to upper storeys.
Great Bath
A large rectangular tank in the Citadel of Mohenjodaro, made watertight with bricks and gypsum mortar, with steps on north and south, likely used for ritual bathing.
e.g. The Great Bath had a large well and a drain; it is considered a unique public structure.
Archaeo-botanist
A specialist who studies ancient plant remains to reconstruct dietary practices and agricultural patterns.
e.g. Archaeo-botanists identified charred grains of wheat, barley, and millets at Harappan sites.
Zoo-archaeologist
A specialist who studies animal bones from archaeological sites to determine domestication and dietary habits.
e.g. Zoo-archaeologists found bones of cattle, sheep, goat, and buffalo, indicating domestication.
Faience
A material made of ground sand or silica mixed with colour and gum, then fired, used to make small pots and ornaments considered precious.
e.g. Miniature faience pots, possibly perfume bottles, are found mostly in Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
Seal
A distinctive Harappan artefact, usually made of steatite, with animal motifs and a line of script, used to stamp impressions on clay for trade and communication.
e.g. Seals were pressed on wet clay tied to bags of goods to ensure they were not tampered with.
Stratigraphy
The study of layers (strata) in an archaeological mound, where lower layers are older and higher layers are more recent, used to assign artefacts to cultural periods.
e.g. Wheeler emphasised following stratigraphy rather than digging in uniform horizontal units.
Mature Harappan
The urban phase of the Harappan Civilisation (2600 BCE–1900 BCE), characterised by planned cities, standardised bricks, seals, weights, and long-distance trade.
e.g. Mohenjodaro and Harappa are Mature Harappan sites.
Early Harappan
The formative phase (6000 BCE–2600 BCE) with small settlements, distinctive pottery, agriculture, and pastoralism, leading to the urban phase.
e.g. The ploughed field at Kalibangan is associated with Early Harappan levels.
Late Harappan
The decadent phase (1900 BCE–1300 BCE) marked by disappearance of seals, script, long-distance trade, and urban features, with a shift to rural life.
e.g. Sites in Gujarat and Haryana show Late Harappan occupation with local weights and deteriorated house construction.
Lapis Lazuli
A blue, highly valued stone procured from Shortughai in Afghanistan, used for craft production.
e.g. Harappans established a settlement at Shortughai near the best source of lapis lazuli.
Dilmun, Magan, Meluhha
Regions mentioned in Mesopotamian texts: Dilmun (probably Bahrain), Magan (possibly Oman), and Meluhha (likely the Harappan region), indicating trade contacts.
e.g. Mesopotamian texts mention carnelian, lapis lazuli, and copper from Meluhha.
Priest-King
A stone statue found at Mohenjodaro, labelled by archaeologists based on parallels with Mesopotamian priest-kings, though its actual role is unknown.
e.g. The statue is seated with one hand on the knee, in a standardised posture.
Proto-Shiva
A figure on a seal depicted seated cross-legged in a yogic posture, surrounded by animals, interpreted by some as an early form of the Hindu deity Shiva.
e.g. This interpretation is speculative, as the Rigveda does not describe Rudra as Pashupati or a yogi.
How It Works
Archaeological Reconstruction of Dietary Practices
  1. Archaeologists find charred grains and seeds at sites.
  2. Archaeo-botanists study these remains to identify plant species.
  3. Animal bones are analysed by zoo-archaeologists to determine domestication.
  4. Finds of fish and fowl bones indicate a wide range of food sources.
💡 Charred grains are direct evidence; animal bones show domestication but not whether Harappans hunted or obtained meat from others.
Urban Planning at Mohenjodaro
  1. The settlement was divided into a Citadel (higher, walled) and a Lower Town (larger, walled).
  2. Buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms, requiring massive labour (estimated 4 million person-days for foundations).
  3. Bricks were of standardised ratio (length:breadth:height = 4:2:1).
  4. Streets were laid in a grid pattern intersecting at right angles, with drains built first.
  5. Houses had courtyards, bathrooms with drains connected to street drains, and wells.
💡 The grid pattern and standardised bricks indicate the city was planned before construction, not organic growth.
Craft Production and Bead-Making
  1. Raw materials like stone nodules, shells, and copper ore were procured.
  2. At centres like Chanhudaro, beads were made from carnelian, jasper, steatite, etc.
  3. Techniques included chipping, flaking, grinding, polishing, and drilling.
  4. Steatite beads were moulded from powder; carnelian was fired to obtain red colour.
  5. Waste materials (e.g., shell pieces, stone chips) indicate production sites.
💡 Waste is the best indicator of craft production; finished products were taken to large urban centres.
Long-Distance Trade and Sealing
  1. Goods were packed in bags, mouths tied with rope.
  2. Wet clay was applied to the knot and seals were pressed, leaving an impression.
  3. If the sealing arrived intact, the goods had not been tampered with.
  4. Seals conveyed the sender's identity; script likely contained name and title.
  5. Trade routes included land (bullock carts) and sea (ships and boats).
💡 Sealings were used for security and identification, not just decoration.
Archaeological Excavation and Stratigraphy
  1. Sites form mounds through accumulation of occupational debris.
  2. Layers (strata) differ in colour, texture, and artefacts.
  3. Lower layers are older; higher layers are more recent.
  4. Artefacts found in layers are assigned to specific cultural periods.
  5. Wheeler emphasised digging along stratigraphy, not uniform horizontal units.
💡 Marshall's method of uniform horizontal digging ignored stratigraphy, losing contextual information.
Decline of the Harappan Civilisation
  1. By c. 1800 BCE, Mature Harappan sites in Cholistan were abandoned.
  2. Population expanded into Gujarat, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh.
  3. Distinctive artefacts (seals, weights, beads, writing) disappeared.
  4. Long-distance trade and craft specialisation ended.
  5. House construction deteriorated; large public structures ceased.
  6. Rural way of life emerged in Late Harappan/successor cultures.
💡 No single cause explains the collapse; theories include climatic change, floods, river drying, and overuse. The Harappan state likely ended.
Exam Traps — Don't Make These Mistakes
⚠ Confusing Early and Mature Harappan
✗ The Harappan Civilisation began around 2600 BCE.
→ 2600 BCE marks the start of the Mature (urban) phase, but the Early Harappan phase began around 6000 BCE.
✓ The Harappan Civilisation spans from 6000 BCE to 1300 BCE; the Mature Harappan phase (urban) is from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.
⚠ Assuming the Script is Deciphered
✗ The Harappan script has been deciphered and tells us about their rulers.
→ The script remains undeciphered; it has 375–400 signs and was written right to left, but its meaning is unknown.
✓ The Harappan script is undeciphered; it is not alphabetical and most inscriptions are short (up to 26 signs).
⚠ Calling the Priest-King a King
✗ The priest-king statue proves that Harappan society had a king.
→ The label 'priest-king' is based on Mesopotamian parallels, not evidence. No palaces or royal burials have been found; the statue's function is unknown.
✓ The stone statue labelled 'priest-king' is a rare find, but there is no evidence of a single ruler; some scholars suggest multiple rulers or no rulers.
⚠ Treating the Great Bath as a Swimming Pool
✗ The Great Bath was used for swimming or recreation.
→ Its location in the Citadel, watertight construction, and associated rooms suggest a ritual or ceremonial purpose, not recreation.
✓ The Great Bath was likely used for special ritual baths, as indicated by its unique structure and context in the Citadel.
⚠ Assuming All Burials Contain Wealth
✗ Harappan burials contained large amounts of gold and jewellery, showing social hierarchy.
→ Most burials had only pottery and ornaments; precious items were rare. Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead.
✓ Harappan burials generally had pottery and ornaments; variations in pit lining may indicate social differences, but wealth was not commonly buried.
⚠ Confusing the 'Invasion' Theory with Fact
✗ The Harappan civilisation was destroyed by Aryan invaders led by Indra.
→ Wheeler's invasion theory was based on skeletons at Mohenjodaro, but Dales later showed the skeletons were from different periods and not evidence of massacre. Recent DNA from Rakhigarhi shows genetic continuity, ruling out large-scale Aryan immigration.
✓ The 'invasion' theory has been rejected; evidence points to internal decline (climatic, economic, or political) and genetic continuity of the Harappan people.
Compare & Contrast
Location and function in Harappan cities
Citadel
Lower Town
The Citadel is the smaller, higher, walled section with public structures (Great Bath, warehouse); the Lower Town is larger, lower, and contains residential houses with drains and wells.
Classification of artefacts by archaeologists
Utilitarian Objects
Luxury Objects
Utilitarian objects are made of ordinary materials (stone, clay) for daily use (querns, pottery); luxury objects are rare, made of costly non-local materials (gold, faience) or complex technologies, found mainly in large settlements.
Exam Focus
Marks pattern: 2 MCQs (1 mark each), 1 Short Answer (3 marks), 1 Long Answer (5 marks), and occasionally a source-based question (5 marks).
Most asked: Urban planning of Mohenjodaro (Citadel, Lower Town, Great Bath, drainage) · Craft production and bead-making (Chanhudaro, materials, techniques) · Seals, script, and weights (features, undeciphered script, binary-decimal system) · Subsistence strategies (agriculture, animal domestication, archaeo-botany) · Decline theories (climatic, river drying, end of state; rejection of invasion theory)
Don't skip: Describe the features of Mohenjodaro that indicate careful planning (5 marks).; Explain the evidence for craft production and trade in the Harappan Civilisation (5 marks).; Discuss the different theories for the decline of the Harappan Civilisation (5 marks).
One-Line Revision (read aloud before the exam)
  1. The Harappan Civilisation is also called the Indus Valley Civilisation, spanning 6000 BCE to 1300 BCE.
  2. The Mature Harappan phase (2600–1900 BCE) is the urban, prosperous phase.
  3. Mohenjodaro was divided into a Citadel (higher, walled) and a Lower Town (larger, residential).
  4. The Great Bath in the Citadel was a watertight tank likely used for ritual bathing.
  5. Harappan bricks had a standardised ratio of 4:2:1 (length:breadth:height).
  6. The drainage system at Mohenjodaro is considered the most complete ancient system.
  7. Seals were made of steatite, with animal motifs and undeciphered script, used for trade.
  8. The Harappan script has 375–400 signs, written right to left, and remains undeciphered.
  9. Weights were binary for lower denominations (1,2,4,8...) and decimal for higher (160,320,640...).
  10. Craft production centres like Chanhudaro specialised in bead-making, shell-cutting, and metalwork.
  11. Harappans traded with Mesopotamia, Oman (Magan), and Bahrain (Dilmun).
  12. The 'priest-king' statue is a stone figure, but its actual role is unknown.
  13. The invasion theory by Wheeler has been rejected; Dales showed no evidence of massacre.
  14. Recent DNA from Rakhigarhi shows genetic continuity of Harappans with modern South Asians.
  15. The decline of the civilisation is marked by disappearance of seals, script, and urban features.
  16. Archaeologists classify finds by material, function, and context to reconstruct Harappan life.

MCQs — 10 Questions with Answers

Q1. Which historian is credited with the first excavation of Harappa in 1921?

  • A. John Marshall ✓
  • B. Mortimer Wheeler
  • C. Colin Mackenzie
  • D. R.E.M. Wheeler

Answer: A — John Marshall initiated the first systematic excavation of Harappa in 1921 and identified the Indus Valley Civilization.

Q2. The standardized ratio of Harappan baked bricks was:

  • A. 1:2:3
  • B. 1:2:4 ✓
  • C. 2:3:4
  • D. 1:3:5

Answer: B — Harappan baked bricks followed a standardized ratio of 1:2:4 (height:width:length), a hallmark of urban planning quality control.

Q3. Which of the following is NOT a major Harappan site?

  • A. Mohenjo-Daro
  • B. Dholavira
  • C. Taxila ✓
  • D. Lothal

Answer: C — Taxila was a major city of the later period (6th century BCE onwards), not a Harappan site; Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, and Lothal are all Mature Harappan cities.

Q4. Evidence of Harappan trade with Mesopotamia includes:

  • A. Iron tools found at Harappan sites
  • B. Carnelian beads and cubical weights found at Mesopotamian sites ✓
  • C. Written records in cuneiform script
  • D. Pottery identical to Mesopotamian design

Answer: B — Carnelian beads (characteristic of Harappan craft), etched beads, and cubical weights (binary system) discovered at Mesopotamian sites prove direct trade connections.

Q5. Which archaeological method involves studying charred grains to understand Harappan diet?

  • A. Archaeo-zoology
  • B. Stratigraphy
  • C. Archaeo-botany ✓
  • D. Radiocarbon dating

Answer: C — Archaeo-botanists specialize in ancient plant remains and study charred grains and seeds to reconstruct dietary practices.

Q6. The Harappan civilization's urban phase (Mature Harappan) lasted from:

  • A. 6000 BCE to 2600 BCE
  • B. 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE ✓
  • C. 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE
  • D. 3000 BCE to 1500 BCE

Answer: B — The Mature Harappan period (2600–1900 BCE) represents the most prosperous urban phase with maximum settlement and architectural development.

Q7. What material were Harappan seals primarily made from?

  • A. Copper
  • B. Gold
  • C. Steatite (soapstone) ✓
  • D. Terracotta

Answer: C — Harappan seals were made of steatite (soapstone) and contained animal motifs and an undeciphered script used for trade and identification.

Q8. Assertion: Underground drainage systems in Harappan cities were unique in the ancient world. Reason: Harappan urban planning included sophisticated sanitation infrastructure beneath streets.

  • A. Both assertion and reason are correct; reason explains assertion ✓
  • B. Both are correct; reason does not explain assertion
  • C. Assertion is correct; reason is incorrect
  • D. Both assertion and reason are incorrect

Answer: A — Both statements are true—Harappan underground drainage was indeed unique globally, and it demonstrates advanced sanitation planning integrated into city design.

Q9. Which of the following crops was NOT commonly found at Harappan sites?

  • A. Wheat and barley
  • B. Lentil and chickpea
  • C. Maize (corn) ✓
  • D. Sesame

Answer: C — Maize is a New World crop unknown in ancient Harappan times; wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and sesame were staple crops found across Harappan settlements.

Q10. The evidence of a ploughed field with two sets of furrows at right angles at Kalibangan suggests that Harappans practiced:

  • A. Monoculture (single crop farming)
  • B. Intercropping (growing two crops together) ✓
  • C. Slash-and-burn agriculture
  • D. Nomadic pastoralism

Answer: B — Two sets of perpendicular furrows indicate simultaneous cultivation of two different crops in the same field, demonstrating advanced agricultural knowledge.

Flashcards

Who first excavated Harappa in 1921?

John Marshall discovered Harappa and began systematic excavation of the Indus Valley Civilization.

What is the time span of Mature Harappan civilization?

Mature Harappan civilization flourished from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE, representing the most prosperous urban phase.

What materials were Harappan seals made of?

Harappan seals were made of steatite (soapstone) and often contained animal motifs and undeciphered script signs.

What was the ratio for standardized Harappan bricks?

Harappan baked bricks followed a standardized ratio of 1:2:4 (height:width:length), unique in the ancient world.

Name three major Harappan sites.

Major Harappan sites include Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Lothal, and Kalibangan.

What crops did the Harappans grow?

Harappans cultivated wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, sesame, and millets (found mainly in Gujarat).

What domesticated animals did Harappans rear?

Harappans domesticated cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig, with evidence from bones found at archaeological sites.

What was the purpose of the Dholavira reservoir?

Water reservoirs at Dholavira in Gujarat were built with stone masonry to store water for irrigation and daily use.

What is a saddle quern used for?

A saddle quern is a grinding tool made of stone used by Harappans to grind cereals and pound herbs and spices.

What evidence proves Harappan trade with Mesopotamia?

Carnelian beads, etched beads, and cubical weights found at Mesopotamian sites prove Harappan-Mesopotamian trade connections.

Important Board Questions

Define 'Mature Harappan' phase and state two of its characteristics. [2 marks]

Mature Harappan (2600–1900 BCE) = most prosperous urban phase; mention any two: planned cities, standardized bricks, drainage systems, trade networks, or large settlements.

Explain how archaeologists reconstructed Harappan agricultural practices with reference to at least two pieces of evidence. [5 marks]

Use evidence: terracotta plough models (Banawali), actual ploughed field at Kalibangan with perpendicular furrows (intercropping), animal bone finds (oxen), canal traces (Shortughai), water reservoirs (Dholavira). Explain what each reveals about farming.

Analyse the role of trade in Harappan civilization. How do artefacts provide evidence of Harappan-Mesopotamian contact? Discuss the significance of standardized weights in this trade network. [8 marks]

Structure: (1) Trade importance—connected distant regions, promoted craft specialization; (2) Evidence—carnelian beads and etched beads found at Mesopotamian sites; (3) Weights—cubical, binary system standardized for accurate trade measurements, found at both Harappan and Mesopotamian sites, indicating mutual commercial understanding; (4) Significance—standardization proves organized long-distance commerce, not casual exchange.

Assertion-Reason Questions for Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation

Q1. Assertion (A):

The Mature Harappan phase (2600–1900 BCE) represents the most prosperous period of the Harappan Civilisation.

Reason (R):

This phase is characterised by extensive urban development, standardised town planning, and evidence of complex social organisation in major cities.

Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A — Both the assertion and reason are true. The Mature Harappan phase indeed saw the peak of urban civilisation with planned cities and standardised architecture. The reason correctly explains WHY it was the most prosperous—the urban development and standardisation indicate economic and administrative sophistication. Both statements support each other logically.

Q2. Assertion (A):

The Harappan Civilisation developed exclusively from Mesopotamian influences introduced through trade.

Reason (R):

Archaeological evidence shows that Early Harappan cultures, dating to around 7000 BCE, emerged from local farming communities before the Mature Harappan phase.

Answer: D — A is false but R is true — The assertion is false: the study material states the Mature Harappan was 'a consequent result of gradual transformation and internal development' of Early Harappan cultures. While trade with Mesopotamia occurred, the civilisation's origins are local, not external. The reason is true (early farming communities did exist), but it contradicts the assertion. Both statements cannot be simultaneously defended.

Q3. Assertion (A):

Saddle querns with grooved surfaces discovered at Harappan sites were used exclusively for grinding cereals.

Reason (R):

Archaeological investigations revealed two main types of querns: one for grain processing and another ('curry stones') for pounding herbs and spices.

Answer: D — A is false but R is true — The assertion is false: the text explicitly identifies two distinct quern types with different functions. The reason is true and provides evidence contradicting the assertion. This tests whether students recognise that NOT all querns served the same purpose, and that the statement 'exclusively for cereals' oversimplifies the evidence.

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Case-Based Questions (CBQ) for Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation

Case Study:

A team of archaeologists excavating at a Harappan site in Gujarat discovered multiple stone objects: grinding stones with convex bases, stone vessels for mixing, and several stones with deep cavities showing signs of repeated pounding. Among the charred remains recovered nearby were wheat, barley, sesame seeds, and traces of herbs. The site's location was 15 km from the nearest river in a semi-arid region. Analysis of animal bones from the same layer included domestic cattle, sheep, and wild boar remains.

Q1. The grinding stones with convex bases and charred grains suggest that the site's inhabitants primarily engaged in:

  • A. Hunting and gathering wild plants
  • B. Agriculture and processing cultivated grains ✓
  • C. Trade of spices with Mesopotamia
  • D. Religious rituals involving stone objects

Answer: B

Q2. The stones with deep cavities were likely used for:

  • A. Storing precious items
  • B. Pounding herbs and spices for food preparation ('curry stones') ✓
  • C. Hunting weaponry
  • D. Water storage in this semi-arid region

Answer: B

Q3. The presence of both domestic animal bones and wild boar remains indicates:

  • A. Only domesticated animals were eaten
  • B. Wild animals were hunted exclusively
  • C. The diet included both domesticated livestock and hunted wildlife ✓
  • D. Boar were domesticated by Harappans

Answer: C

Q4. The location 15 km from the nearest river in a semi-arid region suggests that water for agriculture was likely obtained from:

  • A. Wells and possibly water reservoirs ✓
  • B. Rainfall alone
  • C. Trade networks supplying water
  • D. Underground rivers unknown to modern surveys

Answer: A

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Previous Year Questions (PYQ) for Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation

Real CBSE board exam questions from past papers — free to attempt.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/1/1 · 1 mark

Which of the following is correct regarding Harappan script?

  • This script was alphabetical.
  • It was written from left to right.
  • This script has not been deciphered so far.
  • This script has a few signs or symbols.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/1/1 · 1 mark

In which of the following sites of Harappan civilization, the terracotta models of plough have been discovered?

  • Kalibangan and Dholavira
  • Shortughai and Lothal
  • Banawali and Cholistan
  • Sanghol and Rakhigarhi

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/1/1 · 4 marks

The most ancient system yet discovered About the drains, Mackay noted: "It is certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered." Every house was connected to the street drains. The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. In some cases, limestone was used for the covers. House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while wastewater flowed out into the street drains. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning. It is a wonder of archaeology that "little heaps of material, mostly sand, have frequently been found lying alongside drainage channels, which shows...that the debris was not always carted away when the drain was cleared". From Ernest Mackay, Early Indus Civilisation, 1948 Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements as well. At Lothal for example, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks.

31.1 Analyse the possible reason behind the uniformity in the drainage systems across the Harappan cities.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/1/2 · 1 mark

The most ancient system yet discovered About the drains, Mackay noted : "It is certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered." Every house was connected to the street drains. The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. In some cases, limestone was used for the covers. House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while waste water flowed out into the street drains. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning. It is a wonder of archaeology that "little heaps of material, mostly sand, have frequently been found lying alongside drainage channels, which shows... that the debris was not always carted away when the drain was cleared". From Ernest Mackay, Early Indus Civilisation, 1948 Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements as well. At Lothal for example, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks.

33.1 Analyse the possible reason behind the uniformity in the drainage systems across the Harappan cities.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/1/3 · 1 mark

The most ancient system yet discovered About the drains, Mackay noted: "It is certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered." Every house was connected to the street drains. The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. In some cases, limestone was used for the covers. House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while waste water flowed out into the street drains. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning. It is a wonder of archaeology that "little heaps of material, mostly sand, have frequently been found lying alongside drainage channels, which shows... that the debris was not always carted away when the drain was cleared". From Ernest Mackay, Early Indus Civilisation, 1948 Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements as well. At Lothal for example, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks.

32.1 Analyse the possible reason behind the uniformity in the drainage systems across the Harappan cities.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/2/1 · 1 mark

Two statements are given below as Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Read them carefully and choose correct option. Assertion (A): Harappa was a well-planned city. Reason (R): It had a well-planned drainage system.

  • Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct reasoning of (A).
  • Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is not the correct reasoning of (A).
  • (A) is correct but (R) is not correct.
  • (A) is not correct but (R) is correct.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/2/1 · 1 mark

Which one of the following was a distinctive feature of Harappan architecture?

  • Use of Wood
  • Use of Iron
  • Use of Bricks
  • Use of Marble

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/2/1 · 3 marks

Why were the seals and sealings used by the Harappans to facilitate long distance communication? Explain with examples.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/2/3 · 3 marks

(a) Why were the seals and sealings used by the Harappans to facilitate long distance communication? Explain with examples.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/4/1 · 1 mark

Which of the following statement best explains the uniformity in urban planning across Harappa?

  • Presence of Central authority
  • Management by city-states
  • Organisation of tribal leadership
  • System of nomadic governance

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/4/1 · 1 mark

Which of the following statements accurately describe Harappan seals?

  • Statements I and II are correct.
  • Statements I and III are correct.
  • Statements II and III are correct.
  • Statements III and IV are correct.

CBSE 2025 · Set 61/4/1 · 1 mark

Archaeogenetic Research As you can see, a careful re-examination of the data can sometimes lead to a reversal of earlier interpretations. In this respect, it is necessary to mention the recent archaeogenetic research carried out at the site of Rakhigarhi. The site, located in Hisar district of Haryana, is the biggest Harappan city, spread over an area of 550 Hectare. In order to study the genetic history of the Harappans, DNA was extracted from the skeletal remains excavated at Rakhigarhi. This research was carried out by The Deccan College Deemed University, Pune in collaboration with Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad and The Harvard Medical College. The analysis of the data indicates that the Harappans are the indigenous people of this region. The genetic roots of the Harappans go back to 10,000 BCE. The DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of the South Asian population appears to be their descendants. Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions there is a mixture of genes in small quantity. The continuity without any break in genetic history as well as cultural history rules out large scale immigration of the so-called Aryans. This research also indicates that the people coming from bordering areas and distant regions were absorbed in the Indian society. At no stage, the genetic history of the Indians was either discontinued or broken. As the Harappans started moving towards Iran and Central Asia, their genes also gradually spread in these regions. The same team of researchers reconstructed 3D features of the Harappan people. The reconstructed facial features of the Harappans, male and female, show remarkable similarity with the modern population of Haryana. Thus, this study has indicated unbroken continuity for 5000 years in this region.

How does the research at Rakhigarhi contribute to understanding of ancient civilizations?

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