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Land Resources and Agriculture

NCERT Class 12 · Geography Based on NCERT Class 12 Geography textbook · Free CBSE study kit

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Chapter Notes

Overview
This chapter examines the critical role of land as a resource in India, focusing on its classification, usage patterns, and the agricultural practices that depend on it. It exists in the syllabus to help students understand the complex relationship between land-use changes, economic development, and agricultural sustainability in a developing country like India. The one big idea a student must walk away with is that land is a fixed resource facing increasing pressure from population growth, economic diversification, and environmental degradation, making efficient and sustainable land management essential for India's food security and rural livelihoods.
Key Concepts (30)
Reporting Area
The area for which land-use records are maintained by the land revenue department; it is somewhat different from the geographical area measured by the Survey of India.
e.g. The reporting area for a district may be slightly less than its geographical area due to differences in measurement methods between the revenue department and the Survey of India.
Geographical Area
The fixed area of administrative units in India as measured by the Survey of India; it does not change over time.
e.g. The geographical area of a state like Uttar Pradesh remains constant as per Survey of India records, unlike the reporting area which may vary.
Forest (Land-use Category)
The area which the Government has identified and demarcated for forest growth; it may differ from the actual forest cover.
e.g. An increase in the forest category in land records may occur without any actual increase in tree cover if the government simply demarcates more area as forest.
Barren and Wastelands
Land that cannot be brought under cultivation with available technology, such as barren hilly terrains, desert lands, and ravines.
e.g. The Thar Desert in Rajasthan is classified as barren and wasteland because it cannot be cultivated with current technology.
Land put to Non-agricultural Uses
Land under settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, canals), industries, shops, etc.
e.g. The land on which a new housing colony or a factory is built falls under this category.
Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands
Land owned mostly by the village Panchayat or the Government, used for grazing livestock; a small proportion is privately owned.
e.g. The common grazing ground in a village, often called 'gauchar land', is an example of this category.
Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves
Land under orchards and fruit trees, not included in net sown area; much of this land is privately owned.
e.g. A mango orchard owned by a farmer is classified under this category.
Culturable Wasteland
Any land left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years; it can be brought under cultivation after reclamation practices.
e.g. A field that has been lying unused for seven years due to soil salinity can be classified as culturable wasteland if it can be reclaimed.
Current Fallow
Land left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year; fallowing is a cultural practice to give the land rest and recoup lost fertility.
e.g. A farmer leaves his field uncultivated for one monsoon season to allow natural processes to restore soil fertility.
Fallow other than Current Fallow
Cultivable land left uncultivated for more than one year but less than five years.
e.g. A plot of land left unused for three years due to lack of irrigation facilities falls under this category.
Net Area Sown
The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested.
e.g. If a farmer has 10 hectares of land and sows crops on 8 hectares in a year, the net area sown is 8 hectares.
Common Property Resources (CPRs)
Community's natural resource where every member has the right of access and usage with specified obligations, without anybody having property rights over them; examples include community forests, pasture lands, and village water bodies.
e.g. A village pond used by all villagers for watering livestock and washing clothes is a common property resource.
Cropping Intensity (CI)
The ratio of gross cropped area (GCA) to net sown area (NSA), expressed as a percentage; calculated as (GCA / NSA) × 100.
e.g. If the gross cropped area is 120 hectares and net sown area is 100 hectares, the cropping intensity is 120%.
Kharif Season
The cropping season that largely coincides with the Southwest Monsoon (June-September), suitable for tropical crops like rice, cotton, bajra, jowar, and tur.
e.g. Farmers in Punjab sow rice in June and harvest it in September during the kharif season.
Rabi Season
The cropping season beginning with the onset of winter in October-November and ending in March-April; low temperatures facilitate cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops like wheat, gram, and mustard.
e.g. Wheat is the main rabi crop grown in the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
Zaid Season
A short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting of rabi crops (April-June); crops like watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables, and fodder are grown on irrigated lands.
e.g. Farmers in Uttar Pradesh grow watermelons during the zaid season on irrigated fields.
Protective Irrigation
Irrigation aimed at protecting crops from adverse effects of moisture deficiency; it acts as a supplementary source of water over and above rainfall, with the strategy to provide soil moisture to maximum possible area.
e.g. In a region with erratic rainfall, protective irrigation ensures that crops do not wilt during a dry spell.
Productive Irrigation
Irrigation meant to provide sufficient soil moisture in the cropping season to achieve high productivity; water input per unit area is higher than protective irrigation.
e.g. In Punjab, farmers use productive irrigation to grow high-yielding wheat, applying water frequently to maximize yield.
Dryland Farming
Rainfed farming in regions with annual rainfall less than 75 cm; hardy and drought-resistant crops like ragi, bajra, moong, gram, and guar are grown, along with soil moisture conservation and rainwater harvesting practices.
e.g. In Rajasthan, farmers practice dryland farming by growing bajra and using techniques like bunding to conserve moisture.
Wetland Farming
Rainfed farming in regions where rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement during the rainy season; such regions may face flood and soil erosion hazards and grow water-intensive crops like rice, jute, and sugarcane.
e.g. In West Bengal, wetland farming is common, with farmers growing rice in the monsoon season.
Green Revolution
The spurt of agricultural growth in India following the introduction of High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of wheat and rice, along with chemical fertilizers and irrigation, in the mid-1960s; it made the country self-reliant in foodgrain production.
e.g. The Green Revolution transformed Punjab and Haryana into major wheat and rice producers.
High Yielding Varieties (HYVs)
New seed varieties of wheat (from Mexico) and rice (from the Philippines) that were available for cultivation by the mid-1960s; they were part of a package technology that included chemical fertilizers and assured irrigation.
e.g. The introduction of HYV wheat seeds like 'Kalyan Sona' dramatically increased wheat yields in India.
Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP)
A programme launched to overcome agricultural stagnation in the late 1950s, focusing on intensive use of inputs in selected districts.
e.g. IADP was one of the early efforts to boost agricultural productivity in India before the Green Revolution.
Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP)
A programme similar to IADP, launched to intensify agriculture in specific areas.
e.g. IAAP was implemented in areas with potential for increased agricultural output.
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
A mission to make agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative, and climate resilient by promoting location-specific integrated/composite farming systems and conserving natural resources through soil and moisture conservation measures.
e.g. NMSA promotes organic farming through schemes like Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY).
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)
A government scheme to promote organic farming in India.
e.g. Under PKVY, farmers are encouraged to adopt organic farming practices and are provided support for certification.
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)
A government scheme that also promotes organic farming and overall agricultural development.
e.g. RKVY provides financial support to states for implementing agricultural development projects.
Farmer's Portal of India
A platform for farmers to seek information related to agriculture, including insurance, storage, crops, seeds, pesticides, farm machinery, fertilizers, market prices, and welfare schemes.
e.g. A farmer can use the portal to check the market price of wheat in his nearest mandi.
Salinisation of Soils
The accumulation of salts in the soil, often due to excessive irrigation, leading to loss of fertility; it is a major form of degradation in irrigated areas.
e.g. In parts of Punjab and Haryana, over-irrigation has led to salinisation, making the land less productive.
Waterlogging
A condition where the soil becomes saturated with water, often due to poor drainage or excessive irrigation, which can damage crops and reduce soil fertility.
e.g. In canal-irrigated areas, waterlogging is a common problem that affects crop yields.
How It Works
Land-use Change in India (1950-51 to 2019-20)
  1. Step 1: The size of the economy grows over time due to increasing population, income changes, and technology, increasing pressure on land and bringing marginal lands under use.
  2. Step 2: The composition of the economy changes, with secondary and tertiary sectors growing faster than the primary sector, leading to a shift of land from agricultural to non-agricultural uses, especially around urban areas.
  3. Step 3: Despite the decline in agriculture's share of GDP, the pressure on agricultural land continues because the share of population dependent on agriculture declines slowly and the number of people to feed increases.
  4. Step 4: Between 1950-51 and 2019-20, five categories increased (forest, non-agricultural uses, permanent pasture and grazing land, current fallow, net area sown) and four categories decreased (barren and wasteland, culturable wasteland, area under tree crops and groves, fallow other than current fallow).
  5. Step 5: The highest rate of increase is in non-agricultural uses due to industrial and services sector growth and expansion of settlements and infrastructure.
  6. Step 6: The increase in forest area is due to an increase in demarcated area, not actual forest cover.
  7. Step 7: The decline in barren and culturable wastelands is due to increased pressure from both agricultural and non-agricultural sectors.
💡 Students often confuse 'increase in forest area' with 'increase in actual forest cover' — the chapter clearly states that the increase is in the demarcated area, not necessarily the actual tree cover.
Calculation of Cropping Intensity
  1. Step 1: Determine the Gross Cropped Area (GCA) — the total area sown once or more in an agricultural year.
  2. Step 2: Determine the Net Sown Area (NSA) — the physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested.
  3. Step 3: Apply the formula: Cropping Intensity (CI) = (GCA / NSA) × 100.
  4. Step 4: A CI greater than 100% indicates that some land is used for more than one crop in a year (multiple cropping).
💡 Cropping intensity is a percentage, not a raw number. Students often forget to multiply by 100.
Classification of Farming Based on Moisture Source
  1. Step 1: Identify the main source of moisture for crops — either irrigation or rainfall.
  2. Step 2: If the main source is irrigation, classify as 'Irrigated Farming'.
  3. Step 3: If the main source is rainfall, classify as 'Rainfed (Barani) Farming'.
  4. Step 4: Further classify irrigated farming into 'Protective Irrigation' (supplementary to rainfall, aims to cover maximum area) or 'Productive Irrigation' (aims for high productivity with higher water input per unit area).
  5. Step 5: Further classify rainfed farming into 'Dryland Farming' (annual rainfall less than 75 cm, grows hardy crops like ragi, bajra, gram) or 'Wetland Farming' (rainfall in excess of soil moisture requirement, grows water-intensive crops like rice, jute, sugarcane).
💡 Students often confuse dryland farming with arid farming — dryland farming occurs in areas with less than 75 cm rainfall, not necessarily deserts.
Agricultural Development Strategy in Post-Independence India
  1. Step 1: Immediately after Independence, the goal was to increase foodgrain production by switching from cash crops to food crops, intensifying cropping on existing land, and bringing cultivable and fallow land under plough.
  2. Step 2: In the late 1950s, agricultural production stagnated, leading to the launch of IADP and IAAP.
  3. Step 3: Two consecutive droughts in the mid-1960s caused a food crisis, leading to foodgrain imports.
  4. Step 4: India adopted the 'package technology' of HYVs (wheat from Mexico, rice from Philippines), chemical fertilizers, and assured irrigation in selected areas like Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat — this was the Green Revolution.
  5. Step 5: The Green Revolution initially confined to irrigated areas led to regional disparities; it spread to eastern and central parts by the 1970s.
  6. Step 6: In the 1980s, the Planning Commission focused on rainfed areas and initiated agro-climatic planning (1988) for regionally balanced development, emphasizing diversification into dairy, poultry, horticulture, livestock, and aquaculture.
  7. Step 7: In the 1990s, liberalisation and free market economy policies influenced agricultural development.
💡 Students often think the Green Revolution started immediately after Independence — it actually began in the mid-1960s after the food crisis.
Degradation of Cultivable Land
  1. Step 1: Faulty irrigation and agricultural development strategies lead to degradation of land resources.
  2. Step 2: In irrigated areas, excessive irrigation causes alkalisation, salinisation of soils, and waterlogging.
  3. Step 3: Excessive use of chemicals (insecticides, pesticides) leads to toxic concentration in the soil profile.
  4. Step 4: Displacement of leguminous crops from cropping patterns and reduction of fallow periods due to multiple cropping obliterates natural fertilization processes like nitrogen fixation.
  5. Step 5: In rainfed areas (humid and semi-arid tropics), soil erosion by water and wind occurs, often induced by human activities.
💡 Students often attribute land degradation only to natural causes — the chapter emphasizes that human activities like faulty irrigation and excessive chemical use are major drivers.
Exam Traps — Don't Make These Mistakes
⚠ Confusing 'Forest' Category with Actual Forest Cover
✗ The increase in forest area in India is due to afforestation and conservation efforts.
→ The chapter explicitly states that the increase in the forest category is due to an increase in the area demarcated for forest growth by the government, not necessarily an increase in actual forest cover.
✓ The increase in the share of area under forest is accounted for by an increase in the demarcated area under forest rather than an actual increase in the forest cover in the country.
⚠ Mixing Up 'Net Sown Area' and 'Gross Cropped Area'
✗ Net sown area is the total area on which crops are grown in a year, including multiple cropping.
→ Net sown area is the physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested, not counting multiple cropping. Gross cropped area includes the area sown more than once.
✓ Net sown area is the physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested, while gross cropped area is the total area sown once or more in an agricultural year.
⚠ Confusing 'Protective' and 'Productive' Irrigation
✗ Protective irrigation is used to achieve high productivity.
→ Protective irrigation aims to protect crops from moisture deficiency and provide soil moisture to maximum possible area, not necessarily high productivity. Productive irrigation is meant for high productivity with higher water input per unit area.
✓ Protective irrigation acts as a supplementary source of water to protect crops from moisture deficiency, while productive irrigation provides sufficient soil moisture to achieve high productivity.
⚠ Thinking the Green Revolution Started Immediately After Independence
✗ After Independence, India immediately adopted the Green Revolution to increase food production.
→ The Green Revolution began in the mid-1960s after two consecutive droughts caused a food crisis. The initial post-Independence strategy involved switching from cash crops to food crops and intensifying cropping.
✓ The Green Revolution was introduced in the mid-1960s following a food crisis, using HYVs of wheat and rice, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation.
⚠ Assuming All Fallow Land is the Same
✗ Fallow land is land left uncultivated for a period of time.
→ There are three distinct categories: Current Fallow (left for one agricultural year or less), Fallow other than Current Fallow (left for more than one but less than five years), and Culturable Wasteland (left for more than five years). Each has a different definition and implication.
✓ Current fallow is land left uncultivated for one or less than one agricultural year; fallow other than current fallow is left for more than one but less than five years; culturable wasteland is left for more than five years.
⚠ Confusing 'Dryland Farming' with 'Wetland Farming' Based on Crop Type
✗ Dryland farming is for dry regions and wetland farming is for wet regions.
→ The classification is based on rainfall adequacy, not just region. Dryland farming is in regions with less than 75 cm annual rainfall, growing hardy crops. Wetland farming is in regions with excess rainfall, growing water-intensive crops.
✓ Dryland farming is confined to regions with annual rainfall less than 75 cm, growing drought-resistant crops like ragi, bajra, and gram. Wetland farming occurs where rainfall exceeds soil moisture requirement, growing crops like rice, jute, and sugarcane.
Compare & Contrast
Definition and measurement
Reporting Area
Geographical Area
Reporting area is maintained by the land revenue department and can change somewhat depending on estimates, while geographical area is measured by the Survey of India and remains fixed.
Measurement of agricultural land
Net Sown Area
Gross Cropped Area
Net sown area is the physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested, while gross cropped area is the total area sown once or more in an agricultural year, including multiple cropping.
Objective of irrigation
Protective Irrigation
Productive Irrigation
Protective irrigation aims to protect crops from moisture deficiency by providing supplementary water to maximum possible area, while productive irrigation aims for high productivity by providing sufficient soil moisture with higher water input per unit area.
Rainfall and soil moisture conditions
Dryland Farming
Wetland Farming
Dryland farming is in regions with less than 75 cm annual rainfall, growing hardy and drought-resistant crops, while wetland farming is in regions with excess rainfall, growing water-intensive crops like rice and jute.
Cropping season and climate
Kharif Season
Rabi Season
Kharif season coincides with the Southwest Monsoon (June-September) and grows tropical crops like rice and cotton, while rabi season begins in winter (October-March) and grows temperate/subtropical crops like wheat and mustard.
Exam Focus
Marks pattern: This chapter typically appears in board exams with 2-3 MCQs (1 mark each), 1-2 Short Answer questions (3 marks each), and 1 Long Answer question (5 marks). Total weightage is approximately 10-12 marks.
Most asked: Land-use categories and their changes over time · Cropping intensity calculation and importance · Green Revolution and its impact · Problems of Indian agriculture · Types of farming (irrigated vs rainfed, dryland vs wetland) · Distribution and production of major crops (rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane)
Don't skip: Explain the changes in land-use categories in India between 1950-51 and 2019-20 with reasons.; Discuss the problems faced by Indian agriculture and suggest measures.; Describe the agricultural development strategies in post-Independence India, including the Green Revolution.; Differentiate between dryland and wetland farming, or protective and productive irrigation.
One-Line Revision (read aloud before the exam)
  1. Land-use records are maintained by the land revenue department, and the reporting area differs from the geographical area measured by the Survey of India.
  2. The nine land-use categories in India are forests, barren and wastelands, non-agricultural uses, permanent pastures and grazing lands, miscellaneous tree crops and groves, culturable wasteland, current fallow, fallow other than current fallow, and net area sown.
  3. Between 1950-51 and 2019-20, the highest rate of increase in land-use was in the non-agricultural uses category due to industrial and services sector growth.
  4. Common Property Resources (CPRs) are community-owned natural resources like village pastures and water bodies, crucial for the livelihood of landless and marginal farmers.
  5. Cropping intensity is calculated as (Gross Cropped Area / Net Sown Area) × 100.
  6. India has three cropping seasons: kharif (June-September), rabi (October-March), and zaid (April-June).
  7. Protective irrigation supplements rainfall to protect crops, while productive irrigation aims for high productivity with higher water input.
  8. Dryland farming is in areas with less than 75 cm annual rainfall, growing hardy crops like ragi, bajra, and gram.
  9. The Green Revolution in India began in the mid-1960s with the introduction of HYVs of wheat and rice, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation.
  10. India is the second largest producer of rice, wheat, cotton, and sugarcane in the world.
  11. Major problems of Indian agriculture include dependence on erratic monsoon, low productivity, indebtedness, lack of land reforms, small farm size, and land degradation.
  12. Degradation of cultivable land in irrigated areas is mainly due to salinisation, alkalisation, and waterlogging from faulty irrigation practices.
  13. The National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) aims to make agriculture more productive, sustainable, and climate resilient.
  14. Pulses are legume crops that increase soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and are largely grown in drylands.
  15. Rice is a staple food crop grown in tropical humid areas, with West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab as leading producers.

MCQs — 10 Questions with Answers

Q1. Which of the following is NOT included in the 'Land put to Non-agricultural Uses' category?

  • A. Urban settlements and roads
  • B. Industrial factories and canals
  • C. Orchards and fruit-bearing trees ✓
  • D. Rural settlements and shops

Answer: C — Orchards and fruit trees are classified under 'Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves', not non-agricultural uses.

Q2. The difference between 'Reporting Area' and 'Geographical Area' in India is that:

  • A. Reporting Area is fixed by Survey of India; Geographical Area changes with land revenue records
  • B. Reporting Area changes with land revenue estimates; Geographical Area is fixed by Survey of India ✓
  • C. Both are identical and maintained by the same department
  • D. Reporting Area includes forests; Geographical Area excludes them

Answer: B — Reporting Area varies based on land revenue records estimates, while Geographical Area remains constant per Survey of India measurements.

Q3. Which economic change led to the fastest increase in non-agricultural land-use in India between 1950–51 and 2019–20?

  • A. Rapid growth of agricultural production
  • B. Shift of economy towards secondary and tertiary sectors with infrastructure expansion ✓
  • C. Increase in forest cover classification
  • D. Expansion of pastoral and grazing lands

Answer: B — The fastest increase in non-agricultural uses reflects industrialisation, urbanisation, and infrastructure development as the economy shifted from agriculture to secondary and tertiary sectors.

Q4. Land uncultivated for more than five years is classified as:

  • A. Current Fallow
  • B. Fallow other than Current Fallow
  • C. Culturable Wasteland ✓
  • D. Barren and Wasteland

Answer: C — Culturable Wasteland is defined as land left uncultivated for more than five years and capable of reclamation for cultivation.

Q5. Why does pressure on agricultural land persist in India despite agriculture's declining share in GDP?

  • A. Agricultural technology has become less efficient
  • B. Population dependent on agriculture declines slower than GDP share, and total population to feed continues increasing ✓
  • C. Farmers prefer to keep land fallow for longer periods
  • D. Forest cover has increased significantly

Answer: B — While agriculture's GDP contribution declines faster than its workforce share, the growing total population still requires agricultural production, maintaining land pressure.

Q6. Which statement correctly explains the increase in the 'Forests' category in India's land-use records?

  • A. Actual forest cover has increased proportionally to the recorded increase
  • B. The increase reflects more government demarcation of forest areas, not necessarily increased actual forest cover ✓
  • C. Current Fallow lands are being converted to forests
  • D. Non-agricultural land has been reclassified as forest

Answer: B — Forest category in land-use records includes government-demarcated forest areas, which can increase without proportional growth in actual forest cover on ground.

Q7. Assertion (A): Between 1950–51 and 2019–20, net area sown in India showed a recent increase. Reason (R): This increase is primarily due to reclamation of culturable wasteland for agricultural use. Which of the following is correct?

  • A. Both A and R are true; R correctly explains A ✓
  • B. Both A and R are true; R does not correctly explain A
  • C. A is true, but R is false
  • D. Both A and R are false

Answer: A — Net area sown increased recently (after decades of decline) specifically because culturable wasteland is being reclaimed and brought under cultivation.

Q8. Common Property Resources in India typically include:

  • A. Privately-owned orchards and fruit trees
  • B. Government-demarcated forest areas only
  • C. Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands owned by village panchayats ✓
  • D. Current Fallow lands under private ownership

Answer: C — Most Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands are owned by village panchayats or government, forming Common Property Resources accessible to villagers.

Q9. If an agricultural area was left uncultivated from 2015 to 2017 (2 years), it would be classified as:

  • A. Current Fallow
  • B. Fallow other than Current Fallow ✓
  • C. Culturable Wasteland
  • D. Barren and Wasteland

Answer: B — Since the land was uncultivated for 2 years (more than 1 but less than 5 years), it falls under 'Fallow other than Current Fallow' category.

Q10. According to land-use change data, which of the following categories showed a DECLINE between 1950–51 and 2019–20?

  • A. Non-agricultural uses and Current Fallow
  • B. Barren and Wasteland, and Culturable Wasteland ✓
  • C. Net Area Sown and Forest area
  • D. Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands

Answer: B — Barren and Wasteland and Culturable Wasteland both declined as marginal lands were either converted to non-agricultural uses or brought under cultivation.

Flashcards

What is Net Area Sown?

The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested in a given year.

Distinguish between Current Fallow and Culturable Wasteland.

Current Fallow is land uncultivated for ≤1 year; Culturable Wasteland is uncultivated for >5 years.

Why is area under forests in official records increasing if actual forest cover is not improving?

Because forests category includes government-demarcated forest area, not actual forest cover on the ground.

Which land-use category increased fastest in India between 1950–51 and 2019–20?

Area under non-agricultural uses, due to expansion of urban settlements, roads, industries, and infrastructure.

What is the difference between reporting area and geographical area?

Reporting area changes based on land revenue records estimates; geographical area is fixed by Survey of India measurements.

Name three types of economic changes that affect land-use in a developing country.

Economy size growth, shift in composition from primary to secondary/tertiary sectors, and continued pressure on agricultural land despite falling sector contribution.

Why does pressure on agricultural land persist in India despite agriculture's declining share of GDP?

Because population dependent on agriculture declines slower than GDP share declines, and total population to be fed keeps increasing.

What is included in the 'Land put to Non-agricultural Uses' category?

Settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, canals), industries, shops, and related development.

Which land-use category is mostly owned by village panchayats or government?

Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands, classified as Common Property Resources.

How does the concept of fallowing relate to land fertility management in India?

Fallowing allows soil to naturally recoup lost fertility; Current Fallow (≤1 year) is a deliberate agricultural practice for land rest.

Important Board Questions

Define 'Net Area Sown' and explain how it differs from 'Current Fallow'. [3 marks]

State that Net Area Sown is cultivated land with crops harvested; Current Fallow is deliberately uncultivated for ≤1 year to restore soil fertility through natural processes.

Explain the three types of economic changes that have influenced land-use changes in India. Provide one example for each change to illustrate your answer. [5 marks]

First change: economy size growth → pressure on marginal lands (example: more people = need more agricultural/non-agricultural land). Second: sector composition shift → secondary/tertiary grow faster than agriculture (example: industrial expansion reduces agricultural land). Third: persistent agricultural pressure → population shift slower than GDP shift (example: most Indians still depend on agriculture despite low GDP share).

Analyse why the area under non-agricultural uses has shown the fastest increase in India between 1950–51 and 2019–20, while simultaneously explaining why pressure on agricultural land continues to persist despite agriculture's declining contribution to national GDP. Support your answer with specific evidence from the chapter. [5 marks]

For non-agricultural increase: urbanisation, secondary/tertiary sector expansion, infrastructure (roads, canals, industries), settlement growth especially around cities. For persistent agricultural pressure: population dependent on agriculture declines much slower than GDP decline; total population to feed continuously increases; developing countries prioritise food security; compare with fallowing pattern fluctuations showing agriculture remains critical.

Assertion-Reason Questions for Land Resources and Agriculture

Q1. Assertion (A):

The area classified as forest by the government has increased between 1950-51 and 2019-20.

Reason (R):

This increase represents growth in actual forest cover across India due to successful afforestation programs.

Answer: C — A is true but R is false — The assertion is true—classified forest area did increase. However, the reason is false. The text explicitly states this increase is due to government demarcation of forest areas, not actual increase in forest cover, making the reason incorrect even though the assertion is true.

Q2. Assertion (A):

Current fallow lands increased between 1950-51 and 2019-20 due to improved soil conservation awareness among farmers.

Reason (R):

The share of current fallow fluctuates greatly depending on rainfall variability and cropping cycles rather than following a linear trend.

Answer: B — Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A — Both assertion and reason are true—current fallow did increase in the period shown. However, the reason does not properly explain the assertion. The increase is better explained by natural weather and farming cycle variations rather than causally by conservation awareness, making this a B (true but not explanatory relationship).

Q3. Assertion (A):

Land put to non-agricultural uses has increased at the highest rate among all land-use categories between 1950-51 and 2019-20.

Reason (R):

This is because secondary and tertiary sectors grow much faster than the primary (agricultural) sector in developing economies like India.

Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A — Both the assertion and reason are true, and the reason correctly explains why non-agricultural uses expanded fastest. Economic restructuring away from agriculture directly causes increased demand for land in non-agricultural sectors, making this a clear causal relationship.

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Case-Based Questions (CBQ) for Land Resources and Agriculture

Case Study:

A researcher is studying two Indian states from the 2011 Census data. State A has a literacy rate of 94% and a sex ratio of 1084 females per 1000 males. State B has a literacy rate of 74% and a sex ratio of 918 females per 1000 males. Both states have similar levels of urbanization.

Q1. Based on the passage, which of the following is the most likely conclusion about the relationship between literacy and sex ratio in these two states?

  • A. Higher literacy always leads to a lower sex ratio.
  • B. Higher literacy is associated with a more favorable sex ratio in this comparison. ✓
  • C. Sex ratio is independent of literacy levels.
  • D. Urbanization, not literacy, determines the sex ratio.

Answer: B

Q2. If State A is Kerala and State B is Haryana, which of the following NCERT-based factors best explains the difference in their sex ratios?

  • A. State A has a higher proportion of agricultural workers.
  • B. State A has a historical tradition of matrilineal inheritance and higher female education. ✓
  • C. State B has a higher female workforce participation rate.
  • D. State B has a larger elderly population.

Answer: B

Q3. Which indicator of human development is being directly compared in the passage?

  • A. Literacy and gender equity (sex ratio) ✓
  • B. Per capita income and life expectancy
  • C. Gross enrolment ratio and infant mortality
  • D. Urbanization and poverty ratio

Answer: A

Q4. A student argues that State B's lower sex ratio is solely due to its lower literacy rate. Which of the following is the most valid criticism of this argument based on NCERT understanding?

  • A. Sex ratio is determined only by biological factors, not social ones.
  • B. Literacy rate and sex ratio are not causally linked in any Indian state.
  • C. Other factors like gender discrimination, son preference, and female infanticide also play a major role. ✓
  • D. State B actually has a higher sex ratio once adjusted for migration.

Answer: C

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Previous Year Questions (PYQ) for Land Resources and Agriculture

Real CBSE board exam questions from past papers — free to attempt.

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/2/3 · 5 marks

Explain the problem of 'low productivity' of Indian agriculture. Analyse the role of 'National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture' to solve this problem.

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/1/1 · 1 mark

Which one of the following is a natural process of land degradation?

  • Mining activities
  • Gully erosion
  • Industrial waste
  • Shifting cultivation

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/1/1 · 5 marks

"Generally land-use in a region is influenced by the nature of economic activities." Support the statement with suitable examples.

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/1/3 · 5 marks

Generally land-use in a region is influenced by the nature of economic activities. Support the statement with suitable examples.

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/3/1 · 5 marks

Examine the agricultural development in India since independence.

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/3/2 · 5 marks

Explain the increase in agricultural output and improvement in technology since independence in India.

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/3/3 · 5 marks

Explain the geographical requirements of cotton cultivation and its production in India.

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/4/1 · 1 mark

Choose the correct option related to major Kharif crops of the North India.

  • Jowar, Barley, Mustard
  • Bajra, Gram, Mustard
  • Rice, Barley, Gram
  • Rice, Jowar, Bajra

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/4/1 · 1 mark

Choose the correctly matched pair from the following: (Crop) (Leading Producer State)

  • Maize Bihar
  • Jute West Bengal
  • Groundnut Rajasthan
  • Sunflower Punjab

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/4/2 · 1 mark

Choose the most appropriate option related to major crops of plantation farming in India.

  • Sugarcane, Cotton, Rubber
  • Banana, Rubber, Maize
  • Sugarcane, Banana, Wheat
  • Cotton, Maize, Wheat

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/4/2 · 1 mark

Choose the correctly matched pair from the following : (Crop) (Leading State in Production)

  • Wheat - Madhya Pradesh
  • Rice - Punjab
  • Groundnut - Gujarat
  • Cotton - Haryana

CBSE 2026 · Set 64/4/3 · 1 mark

Choose the most appropriate option related to the crops under 'Zaid' cropping season in the states of Southern India.

  • Rice, Fodder, Vegetables
  • Vegetables, Sugarcane, Cotton
  • Fodder, Oil seeds, Cotton
  • Rice, Sugarcane, Oil seeds

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Class 12 Geography Previous Year Questions, Chapter-wise

All 759 CBSE board questions from 2022–2026, sorted by chapter and question type. Free PDF download.

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Class 12 Geography Map Work

All 99 places on the CBSE 2026-27 map list, with where each is and what to remember, marked with the board years (2022–2026) each was asked. Free PDF download.

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