Class 12 Chemistry Formula Sheet 2026-27 (Free PDF) with Named Reactions

Every formula and named reaction from all 10 NCERT Class 12 Chemistry chapters in one place, checked against the NCERT textbook (Reprint 2026-27) and the official CBSE 2026-27 syllabus. Physical chemistry formulas plus every named organic reaction in the book.

How to use this sheet. Every box covers the CBSE 2026-27 board-exam syllabus. Chapters 1 to 3 hold the numerical formulas. Chapters 4 to 10 list the key equations and every named reaction in the book. Surface Chemistry and Isolation of Elements are assessed only formatively in 2026-27, and they are not in this textbook, so they are not covered here. Constants: $R = 8.314\,\text{J K}^{-1}\,\text{mol}^{-1} = 0.0821\,\text{L atm K}^{-1}\,\text{mol}^{-1}$, $F = 96487\,\text{C mol}^{-1}$, $\frac{2.303RT}{F} = 0.059\,\text{V}$ at 298 K.

Solutions
Electrochemistry
Chemical Kinetics
The d- and f-Block Elements
Coordination Compounds
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
Amines
Biomolecules

1Solutions

Concentration terms

Mass % $= \dfrac{\text{mass of component}}{\text{total mass of solution}} \times 100$
ppm $= \dfrac{\text{parts of component}}{\text{total parts of solution}} \times 10^6$
Mole fraction: $x_A = \dfrac{n_A}{n_A + n_B}$, $\ x_A + x_B = 1$
Molarity $M = \dfrac{\text{moles of solute}}{\text{volume of solution in L}}$ (changes with temperature)
Molality $m = \dfrac{\text{moles of solute}}{\text{mass of solvent in kg}}$ (independent of temperature)

Henry's law and Raoult's law

Henry's law (gas in liquid): $p = K_H\,x$; higher $K_H$ means lower solubility
Raoult's law: $p_1 = p_1^0\,x_1$, $\ p_2 = p_2^0\,x_2$
$p_{total} = p_1^0 + (p_2^0 - p_1^0)\,x_2$
Vapour composition: $y_1 = p_1/p_{total}$

Ideal and non-ideal solutions

Type	Raoult's law	$\Delta_{mix}H$, $\Delta_{mix}V$	A-B vs A-A, B-B forces	Azeotrope / example
Ideal	obeyed	both 0	equal	n-hexane + n-heptane; bromoethane + chloroethane
Positive deviation	$p >$ Raoult value	both $> 0$	weaker	Minimum boiling azeotrope; ethanol + water (95% ethanol)
Negative deviation	$p <$ Raoult value	both $< 0$	stronger	Maximum boiling azeotrope; HNO$_3$ + water (68% HNO$_3$); chloroform + acetone

Colligative properties

Relative lowering of vapour pressure: $\dfrac{p_1^0 - p_1}{p_1^0} = x_2$
Elevation of boiling point: $\Delta T_b = K_b\,m$
Depression of freezing point: $\Delta T_f = K_f\,m$
Osmotic pressure: $\pi = CRT = \dfrac{n_2}{V}RT$
$K_b$, $K_f$ in K kg mol$^{-1}$ depend only on the solvent.

Molar mass of solute ($M_2$)

From $\Delta T_b$: $M_2 = \dfrac{1000 \times w_2 \times K_b}{\Delta T_b \times w_1}$
From $\Delta T_f$: $M_2 = \dfrac{1000 \times w_2 \times K_f}{\Delta T_f \times w_1}$
From $\pi$: $M_2 = \dfrac{w_2RT}{\pi V}$ (best for polymers and proteins)
$w_1$, $w_2$ are masses (g) of solvent and solute.

van't Hoff factor and abnormal molar mass

$$i = \frac{\text{normal molar mass}}{\text{abnormal molar mass}} = \frac{\text{observed colligative property}}{\text{calculated colligative property}} = \frac{\text{total moles of particles after}}{\text{moles of particles before association/dissociation}}$$
Modified equations: $\Delta T_b = iK_bm$, $\ \Delta T_f = iK_fm$, $\ \pi = iCRT$, $\ \dfrac{p_1^0 - p_1}{p_1^0} = i\,\dfrac{n_2}{n_1}$
Dissociation (e.g. KCl): $i > 1$. Association (e.g. ethanoic acid dimerising in benzene): $i < 1$.
Isotonic solutions have equal $\pi$. Reverse osmosis applies pressure greater than $\pi$ (desalination).

2Electrochemistry

Galvanic cell

Daniell cell: $\ce{Zn(s) + Cu^2+(aq) -> Zn^2+(aq) + Cu(s)}$, $E^\circ = 1.1\,\text{V}$
Notation: $\ce{Zn(s) | Zn^2+(aq) || Cu^2+(aq) | Cu(s)}$ (anode left, cathode right)
$E_{cell} = E_{right} - E_{left} = E_{cathode} - E_{anode}$
Standard hydrogen electrode: $E^\circ = 0$. Anode: oxidation. Cathode: reduction.

Nernst equation

Electrode $\ce{M^{n+} + ne- -> M}$: $E = E^\circ - \dfrac{RT}{nF}\ln\dfrac{1}{[\ce{M^{n+}}]}$
Cell at 298 K, $\ce{aA + bB -> cC + dD}$: $$E_{cell} = E^\circ_{cell} - \frac{0.059}{n}\log\frac{[C]^c[D]^d}{[A]^a[B]^b}$$

Energy and equilibrium

$\Delta_rG = -nFE_{cell}$; $\ \Delta_rG^\circ = -nFE^\circ_{cell}$
$\Delta_rG^\circ = -RT\ln K$
At 298 K: $\log K_c = \dfrac{nE^\circ_{cell}}{0.059}$
$E^\circ_{cell} > 0$ means $\Delta_rG^\circ < 0$: spontaneous.

Conductance

$R = \rho\dfrac{l}{A}$; conductivity $\kappa = \dfrac{1}{\rho}$ (S m$^{-1}$)
Conductance $G = \dfrac{1}{R}$ (siemens, S)
Cell constant $G^* = \dfrac{l}{A} = R\,\kappa$
Molar conductivity: $\Lambda_m = \dfrac{\kappa}{c}$; with $c$ in mol L$^{-1}$: $\Lambda_m\,(\text{S cm}^2\,\text{mol}^{-1}) = \dfrac{\kappa\,(\text{S cm}^{-1}) \times 1000}{c}$

Variation with concentration

$\kappa$ decreases and $\Lambda_m$ increases on dilution
Strong electrolyte: $\Lambda_m = \Lambda_m^\circ - A\sqrt{c}$
Kohlrausch's law: $\Lambda_m^\circ = \nu_+\lambda_+^\circ + \nu_-\lambda_-^\circ$
Weak electrolyte: $\alpha = \dfrac{\Lambda_m}{\Lambda_m^\circ}$, $\ K_a = \dfrac{c\alpha^2}{1 - \alpha}$

Electrolysis (Faraday's laws)

First law: $m = ZIt$, $\ Q = It$
Second law: masses liberated by the same charge are in the ratio of their equivalent masses
1 F = 96487 C = charge on 1 mol of electrons
Brine: $\ce{NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) -> Na+(aq) + OH^-(aq) + 1/2H2(g) + 1/2Cl2(g)}$

Batteries, fuel cell, corrosion

Dry (Leclanché) cell: anode $\ce{Zn -> Zn^2+ + 2e-}$; cathode $\ce{MnO2 + NH4+ + e- -> MnO(OH) + NH3}$; about 1.5 V
Mercury cell: $\ce{Zn(Hg) + HgO(s) -> ZnO(s) + Hg(l)}$; about 1.35 V, constant over its life
Lead storage battery (discharge): $\ce{Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) -> 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)}$
H$_2$-O$_2$ fuel cell: $\ce{2H2(g) + O2(g) -> 2H2O(l)}$
Rusting: $\ce{2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq) -> 2Fe^2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)}$, $E^\circ_{cell} = 1.67\,\text{V}$; rust is $\ce{Fe2O3.xH2O}$

3Chemical Kinetics

Rate of reaction

Average rate $= -\dfrac{\Delta[R]}{\Delta t} = +\dfrac{\Delta[P]}{\Delta t}$
For $\ce{aA + bB -> cC + dD}$: rate $= -\dfrac{1}{a}\dfrac{d[A]}{dt} = -\dfrac{1}{b}\dfrac{d[B]}{dt} = \dfrac{1}{c}\dfrac{d[C]}{dt} = \dfrac{1}{d}\dfrac{d[D]}{dt}$
Rate law: rate $= k[A]^x[B]^y$; order $= x + y$ (found by experiment)
Molecularity: number of species in an elementary step (never 0 or fractional)

Units of $k$

Order	Unit of $k$
0	mol L$^{-1}$ s$^{-1}$
1	s$^{-1}$
2	L mol$^{-1}$ s$^{-1}$
$n$	(mol L$^{-1}$)$^{1-n}$ s$^{-1}$

Zero order

$[R] = [R]_0 - kt$; $\ k = \dfrac{[R]_0 - [R]}{t}$
Half-life: $t_{1/2} = \dfrac{[R]_0}{2k}$ ($\propto [R]_0$)
Graph: $[R]$ vs $t$ is a straight line with slope $-k$
Examples: $\ce{2NH3 -> N2 + 3H2}$ on hot Pt; $\ce{2HI -> H2 + I2}$ on gold.

First order

$$k = \frac{2.303}{t}\log\frac{[R]_0}{[R]}$$
$[R] = [R]_0\,e^{-kt}$
Half-life: $t_{1/2} = \dfrac{0.693}{k}$ (independent of $[R]_0$)
Gas phase $\ce{A(g) -> B(g) + C(g)}$: $k = \dfrac{2.303}{t}\log\dfrac{p_i}{2p_i - p_t}$
Graph: $\ln[R]$ vs $t$ is a straight line with slope $-k$

Pseudo first order

One reactant in large excess, so its concentration hardly changes
$\ce{CH3COOC2H5 + H2O ->[H+] CH3COOH + C2H5OH}$
Inversion of cane sugar: $\ce{C12H22O11 + H2O ->[H+] C6H12O6 (glucose) + C6H12O6 (fructose)}$

Temperature and collision theory

Arrhenius: $k = A\,e^{-E_a/RT}$; $\ \ln k = \ln A - \dfrac{E_a}{RT}$
$$\log\frac{k_2}{k_1} = \frac{E_a}{2.303R}\left[\frac{T_2 - T_1}{T_1T_2}\right]$$
A 10 K rise roughly doubles the rate constant
Collision theory: rate $= P\,Z_{AB}\,e^{-E_a/RT}$ ($P$ = probability or steric factor)
A catalyst lowers $E_a$; it does not change $\Delta G$ or the equilibrium constant

4The d- and f-Block Elements

Electronic configuration

d-block: $(n-1)d^{1-10}\,ns^{1-2}$; exceptions Cr $3d^5 4s^1$, Cu $3d^{10} 4s^1$
Lanthanoids: $[\text{Xe}]\,4f^{1-14}\,5d^{0-1}\,6s^2$
Actinoids: $[\text{Rn}]\,5f^{1-14}\,6d^{0-1}\,7s^2$
Zn, Cd, Hg ($d^{10}$ in ground state and common ions) are not regarded as transition metals.

Key properties

Spin-only magnetic moment: $$\mu = \sqrt{n(n+2)}\ \text{BM}$$ ($n$ = unpaired electrons)
Coloured ions: d-d transitions (partly filled d orbitals)
Variable oxidation states; Mn shows the most (+2 to +7)
Form complexes, interstitial compounds, alloys; act as catalysts

Potassium dichromate

$\ce{4FeCr2O4 + 8Na2CO3 + 7O2 -> 8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8CO2}$
$\ce{2Na2CrO4 + 2H+ -> Na2Cr2O7 + 2Na+ + H2O}$
$\ce{Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl -> K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl}$
pH: $\ce{2CrO4^2- + 2H+ -> Cr2O7^2- + H2O}$; $\ce{Cr2O7^2- + 2OH- -> 2CrO4^2- + H2O}$
Oxidant (acid): $\ce{Cr2O7^2- + 14H+ + 6e- -> 2Cr^3+ + 7H2O}$

Potassium permanganate

$\ce{2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2 -> 2K2MnO4 + 2H2O}$
$\ce{3MnO4^2- + 4H+ -> 2MnO4- + MnO2 + 2H2O}$
Acidic: $\ce{MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- -> Mn^2+ + 4H2O}$
Neutral or faintly alkaline: $\ce{MnO4- + 2H2O + 3e- -> MnO2 + 4OH-}$

Lanthanoids and actinoids

Lanthanoid contraction: steady fall in atomic and ionic radii from La to Lu (poor shielding by 4f electrons). So Zr and Hf have almost identical radii.
Lanthanoids: mainly +3 (Ce$^{4+}$ oxidant, Eu$^{2+}$ reductant). Actinoids: wider range of oxidation states, all radioactive.
Mischmetall: about 95% lanthanoid metal + 5% iron.

5Coordination Compounds

Key terms

Coordination number: number of ligand donor atoms bonded to the metal
Ligands: unidentate (Cl$^-$, NH$_3$), didentate (en, C$_2$O$_4^{2-}$), polydentate (EDTA$^{4-}$, hexadentate)
Ambidentate: NO$_2^-$/ONO$^-$, SCN$^-$/NCS$^-$
Werner: primary valence = oxidation state (ionisable); secondary valence = coordination number

IUPAC naming rules

Cation named before anion; ligands in alphabetical order before the metal
Anionic ligands end in -o (chlorido, cyanido); aqua, ammine, carbonyl
Prefixes di-, tri-; bis-, tris- for complex ligand names
Oxidation state in Roman numerals; anionic complex ends in -ate (ferrate, cuprate)
$\ce{[Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2}$: pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) chloride

Isomerism

Geometrical: cis/trans in square planar $\ce{[MX2L2]}$ and octahedral $\ce{[MX2L4]}$; fac/mer in $\ce{[MA3B3]}$
Optical: non-superimposable mirror images, e.g. $\ce{[Co(en)3]^3+}$
Linkage: $\ce{[Co(NH3)5(NO2)]Cl2}$ vs $\ce{[Co(NH3)5(ONO)]Cl2}$
Coordination, ionisation and solvate (hydrate) isomerism

Valence bond theory

CN	Hybridisation	Shape	Example
4	$sp^3$	tetrahedral	$\ce{[NiCl4]^2-}$ (paramagnetic)
4	$dsp^2$	square planar	$\ce{[Ni(CN)4]^2-}$ (diamagnetic)
6	$d^2sp^3$ (inner)	octahedral	$\ce{[Co(NH3)6]^3+}$ (diamagnetic)
6	$sp^3d^2$ (outer)	octahedral	$\ce{[CoF6]^3-}$ (paramagnetic)

Crystal field theory

Octahedral: $e_g$ above, $t_{2g}$ below, split by $\Delta_o$. Tetrahedral: $\Delta_t = \dfrac{4}{9}\Delta_o$ (always high spin).
$\Delta_o > P$ (pairing energy): strong field, low spin. $\Delta_o < P$: weak field, high spin.
Spectrochemical series: $\ce{I- < Br- < SCN- < Cl- < S^2- < F- < OH- < C2O4^2- < H2O < NCS- < edta^4- < NH3 < en < CN- < CO}$
Colour: light absorbed for d-d transition; the complementary colour is seen
Metal carbonyls: synergic bonding ($\sigma$ donation from CO, $\pi$ back-donation from metal)

6Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

Preparation

From alcohols: $\ce{ROH + HX ->[ZnCl2] RX + H2O}$; $\ce{3ROH + PX3 -> 3RX + H3PO3}$; $\ce{ROH + SOCl2 -> RCl + SO2 ^ + HCl ^}$
Alkene + HX: Markovnikov's rule (H goes to the carbon with more H)
Arenes: $\ce{C6H6 + Cl2 ->[Fe, dark] C6H5Cl + HCl}$ (o- and p-products with toluene)

Halogen exchange

Finkelstein: $\ce{R-X + NaI ->[dry acetone] R-I + NaX}$ (X = Cl, Br)
Swarts: $\ce{H3C-Br + AgF -> H3C-F + AgBr}$ (also Hg$_2$F$_2$, CoF$_2$, SbF$_3$)
Sandmeyer: $\ce{ArN2+X- ->[Cu2X2] ArX + N2}$ (X = Cl, Br)

Substitution: SN1 and SN2

SN2: one step, inversion of configuration; $\ce{CH3X}$ > 1° > 2° > 3°
SN1: carbocation, racemisation; 3° > 2° > 1°
Reactivity of halides: $\ce{R-I}$ > $\ce{R-Br}$ > $\ce{R-Cl}$ > $\ce{R-F}$
KCN gives cyanide (R-CN); AgCN gives isocyanide (R-NC). KNO$_2$ gives R-ONO; AgNO$_2$ gives R-NO$_2$

Elimination and Grignard

Dehydrohalogenation with alcoholic KOH. Zaitsev (Saytzeff) rule: the more substituted alkene is the major product
$\ce{R-X + Mg ->[dry ether] R-MgX}$
$\ce{R-MgX + H2O -> R-H + Mg(OH)X}$

Wurtz, Wurtz-Fittig, Fittig

Wurtz: $\ce{2RX + 2Na ->[dry ether] R-R + 2NaX}$
Wurtz-Fittig: $\ce{ArX + RX + 2Na ->[ether] Ar-R + 2NaX}$
Fittig: $\ce{2ArX + 2Na ->[ether] Ar-Ar + 2NaX}$

Haloarenes

Less reactive to nucleophiles (resonance, sp$^2$ carbon); $\ce{-NO2}$ at o/p raises reactivity
$\ce{C6H5Cl ->[(i) NaOH, 623 K, 300 atm][(ii) H+] C6H5OH}$
Electrophilic substitution goes o- and p- (halogen is deactivating but o/p-directing)
Friedel-Crafts: chlorobenzene + $\ce{CH3Cl}$ or $\ce{CH3COCl}$ with anhyd. AlCl$_3$

7Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers

Preparing alcohols

Acid-catalysed hydration: $\ce{CH2=CH2 + H2O ->[H+] CH3CH2OH}$ (Markovnikov)
Hydroboration-oxidation: $\ce{CH3CH=CH2 ->[(i) B2H6][(ii) H2O2/OH-] CH3CH2CH2OH}$ (anti-Markovnikov product)
Reduction: $\ce{RCHO ->[H2, Pd / NaBH4] RCH2OH}$; $\ce{RCOOH ->[(i) LiAlH4][(ii) H2O] RCH2OH}$
Grignard: HCHO gives 1°, other aldehydes give 2°, ketones give 3° alcohols

Preparing phenol

From chlorobenzene: NaOH at 623 K and 300 atm, then acidify
From benzenesulphonic acid: fuse with NaOH, then acidify
From diazonium salt: $\ce{C6H5N2+Cl- + H2O ->[warm] C6H5OH + N2 + HCl}$
Cumene process: cumene $\ce{->[O2]}$ cumene hydroperoxide $\ce{->[H+, H2O]}$ phenol + acetone

Reactions of alcohols

Lucas test (conc. HCl + ZnCl$_2$): 3° turbid at once, 1° no turbidity at room temperature, 2° in between
Dehydration: $\ce{C2H5OH ->[conc. H2SO4, 443 K] CH2=CH2 + H2O}$
Oxidation: 1° to aldehyde (PCC) or acid (KMnO$_4$); 2° to ketone (CrO$_3$); 3° resist
Heated Cu at 573 K: 1° gives aldehyde, 2° gives ketone, 3° gives alkene
Esterification: $\ce{ROH + R'COOH <=>[H+] R'COOR + H2O}$

Reactions of phenol

Acidity: phenol > water > alcohols; $\ce{-NO2}$ raises acidity, $\ce{-CH3}$ lowers it
Bromine water: 2,4,6-tribromophenol (white ppt)
Kolbe: sodium phenoxide + $\ce{CO2}$, then $\ce{H+}$, gives salicylic acid
Reimer-Tiemann: $\ce{CHCl3}$ + aq. NaOH, then $\ce{H+}$, gives salicylaldehyde
Dilute HNO$_3$: o- and p-nitrophenol; conc. HNO$_3$: picric acid

Ethers

Williamson synthesis: $\ce{R-X + R'-ONa -> R-O-R' + NaX}$ (use a 1° halide; 3° halides give alkenes)
From alcohols: $\ce{2C2H5OH ->[H2SO4, 413 K] C2H5OC2H5 + H2O}$
Cleavage by HI: $\ce{R-O-R + HX -> RX + R-OH}$; anisole gives phenol + $\ce{CH3I}$
Anisole undergoes o/p substitution (Friedel-Crafts, nitration, bromination)

8Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

Preparing aldehydes and ketones

Rosenmund: $\ce{RCOCl ->[H2, Pd-BaSO4] RCHO}$
Stephen: $\ce{RCN ->[SnCl2 + HCl] RCH=NH ->[H3O+] RCHO}$
Etard: toluene $\ce{->[CrO2Cl2, CS2]}$ chromium complex $\ce{->[H3O+]}$ benzaldehyde
Gatterman-Koch: benzene $\ce{->[CO, HCl][anhyd. AlCl3/CuCl]}$ benzaldehyde
Ketones: $\ce{2R'2Cd + 2RCOCl -> 2RCOR' + CdCl2}$; nitrile + Grignard, then hydrolysis

Reduction of the carbonyl group

To alcohols: NaBH$_4$ or LiAlH$_4$
Clemmensen: $\ce{>C=O ->[Zn-Hg, conc. HCl] >CH2}$
Wolff-Kishner: $\ce{>C=O ->[NH2NH2] >C=NNH2 ->[KOH/ethylene glycol, heat] >CH2}$

Nucleophilic addition

HCN gives cyanohydrin; NaHSO$_3$ gives bisulphite adduct
Ammonia derivatives $\ce{H2N-Z}$: oxime ($\ce{NH2OH}$), hydrazone, 2,4-DNP derivative, semicarbazone
Alcohols: hemiacetal and acetal (aldehydes); ketal with ethylene glycol (ketones)
Reactivity: HCHO > other aldehydes > ketones

Aldol and Cannizzaro

Aldol (has $\alpha$-H, dil. NaOH): $\ce{2CH3CHO -> CH3CH(OH)CH2CHO ->[heat] CH3CH=CHCHO}$
Cross aldol: two different carbonyl compounds give a mixture of four products
Cannizzaro (no $\alpha$-H, conc. alkali): $\ce{2HCHO + KOH -> CH3OH + HCOOK}$

Tests that tell aldehydes from ketones

Tollens' (silver mirror): $\ce{RCHO + 2[Ag(NH3)2]+ + 3OH- -> RCOO- + 2Ag + 2H2O + 4NH3}$
Fehling's (red-brown ppt): $\ce{RCHO + 2Cu^2+ + 5OH- -> RCOO- + Cu2O + 3H2O}$. Aromatic aldehydes do not respond.
Iodoform ($\ce{CH3CO-}$ or $\ce{CH3CH(OH)-}$): NaOI gives yellow $\ce{CHI3}$

Preparing carboxylic acids

1° alcohols/aldehydes $\ce{->[KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7/H+]}$ acids
Alkylbenzene $\ce{->[KMnO4-KOH, heat][H3O+]}$ benzoic acid (whole side chain goes to -COOH)
Nitriles and amides $\ce{->[H3O+]}$ acids; Grignard $\ce{->[(i) CO2][(ii) H3O+]}$ RCOOH
Acyl halides, anhydrides and esters hydrolyse to acids

Reactions of carboxylic acids

Acidity: $\ce{F3C-COOH}$ > $\ce{Cl3C-COOH}$ > $\ce{Cl2CHCOOH}$ > $\ce{NO2CH2COOH}$ > $\ce{NC-CH2COOH}$ > $\ce{FCH2COOH}$ > $\ce{ClCH2COOH}$ > $\ce{BrCH2COOH}$ > $\ce{HCOOH}$ > $\ce{ClCH2CH2COOH}$ > $\ce{C6H5COOH}$ > $\ce{C6H5CH2COOH}$ > $\ce{CH3COOH}$ > $\ce{CH3CH2COOH}$; electron-withdrawing groups raise acidity
With $\ce{NaHCO3}$: $\ce{CO2}$ effervescence (test for -COOH). With PCl$_5$/SOCl$_2$: acid chloride. With $\ce{NH3}$, then heat: amide.
Reduction: $\ce{RCOOH ->[(i) LiAlH4/ether or B2H6][(ii) H3O+] RCH2OH}$
Decarboxylation: $\ce{RCOONa ->[NaOH + CaO, heat] RH + Na2CO3}$
Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky: $\ce{R-CH2-COOH ->[(i) X2/red P][(ii) H2O] R-CHX-COOH}$ ($\alpha$-halogenation)
Ring substitution: -COOH is deactivating and meta-directing (no Friedel-Crafts)

9Amines

Preparation

Nitro reduction: $\ce{ArNO2 ->[Fe/HCl or Sn/HCl or H2/Pd] ArNH2}$
Ammonolysis: $\ce{RX + NH3 -> RNH2}$, giving a mixture of 1°, 2°, 3° amines and quaternary salt
Nitriles: $\ce{RCN ->[H2/Ni or LiAlH4] RCH2NH2}$ (one carbon more)
Amides: $\ce{RCONH2 ->[(i) LiAlH4][(ii) H2O] RCH2NH2}$

Gabriel and Hoffmann

Gabriel phthalimide: phthalimide $\ce{->[KOH]}$ $\ce{->[RX]}$ $\ce{->[NaOH(aq)]}$ $\ce{RNH2}$ (1° aliphatic amines only)
Hoffmann bromamide: $\ce{RCONH2 + Br2 + 4NaOH -> RNH2 + Na2CO3 + 2NaBr + 2H2O}$ (one carbon fewer)

Basicity

Gas phase: 3° > 2° > 1° > $\ce{NH3}$
Aqueous (methyl): $\ce{(CH3)2NH}$ > $\ce{CH3NH2}$ > $\ce{(CH3)3N}$ > $\ce{NH3}$
Aqueous (ethyl): $\ce{(C2H5)2NH}$ > $\ce{(C2H5)3N}$ > $\ce{C2H5NH2}$ > $\ce{NH3}$
Aniline is weaker than $\ce{NH3}$ (lone pair delocalised into the ring); lower $pK_b$ means stronger base

Tests for amines

Carbylamine (1° only): $\ce{R-NH2 + CHCl3 + 3KOH ->[heat] R-NC + 3KCl + 3H2O}$ (foul smell)
Hinsberg (benzenesulphonyl chloride): 1° gives a product soluble in alkali; 2° gives an insoluble product; 3° does not react
Nitrous acid: 1° aliphatic gives $\ce{N2}$ gas; aromatic 1° gives diazonium salt (273-278 K)

Aniline: ring reactions

Bromine water: 2,4,6-tribromoaniline (white ppt)
Monosubstitution: protect first by acetylation (acetanilide)
Nitration gives some m-product (anilinium ion is meta-directing)
Sulphonation gives sulphanilic acid; no Friedel-Crafts ($\ce{-NH2}$ binds AlCl$_3$)

Diazonium salts

Diazotisation: $\ce{C6H5NH2 + NaNO2 + 2HCl ->[273-278 K] C6H5N2+Cl- + NaCl + 2H2O}$
Sandmeyer: Cu$_2$Cl$_2$/HCl, Cu$_2$Br$_2$/HBr or CuCN/KCN gives ArCl, ArBr, ArCN
Gattermann: Cu/HCl or Cu/HBr gives ArCl, ArBr
KI gives ArI; $\ce{HBF4}$ then heat gives ArF; $\ce{H3PO2}$ or $\ce{CH3CH2OH}$ gives ArH; warm water gives ArOH
Coupling: with phenol (alkaline) gives orange p-hydroxyazobenzene; with aniline (acidic) gives yellow p-aminoazobenzene

10Biomolecules

Glucose: proof of structure

HI, heat: n-hexane (straight 6-C chain)
$\ce{NH2OH}$: oxime; HCN: cyanohydrin (carbonyl group present)
Bromine water: gluconic acid (-CHO present)
Acetic anhydride: pentaacetate (five -OH groups)
$\ce{HNO3}$: saccharic acid (a 1° alcohol group present)
Glucose gives no 2,4-DNP or Schiff's test and no bisulphite adduct, which led to its cyclic structure.

Carbohydrates

Sucrose = $\alpha$-D-glucose + $\beta$-D-fructose (C1-C2 link, non-reducing)
Hydrolysis changes rotation from dextro to laevo: invert sugar
Maltose = 2 $\alpha$-D-glucose (C1-C4); lactose = $\beta$-D-galactose + $\beta$-D-glucose
Starch = amylose (15-20%, water soluble) + amylopectin (80-85%); cellulose = $\beta$-D-glucose chains
Anomers ($\alpha$, $\beta$) differ only at C1

Proteins and enzymes

Peptide bond: $\ce{-CO-NH-}$ between $\alpha$-amino acids
Amino acids exist as zwitterions
Structure: primary (sequence), secondary ($\alpha$-helix, $\beta$-pleated sheet), tertiary, quaternary
Denaturation: loss of 2° and 3° structure; the primary structure stays
Enzymes: biocatalysts that lower activation energy

Nucleic acids, vitamins, hormones

Nucleoside = base + sugar; nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate
DNA: deoxyribose; A, G, C, T; double helix (A pairs with T, G with C). RNA: ribose; A, G, C, U
Fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K (stored). Water-soluble: B group, C
Hormones: steroids (estrogens, androgens), polypeptides (insulin, endorphins), amino acid derivatives (epinephrine). Insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose.

Order	Unit of \(k\)
0	mol L\(^{-1}\) s\(^{-1}\)
1	s\(^{-1}\)
2	L mol\(^{-1}\) s\(^{-1}\)
\(n\)	(mol L\(^{-1}\))\(^{1-n}\) s\(^{-1}\)

CN	Hybridisation	Shape	Example
4	\(sp^3\)	tetrahedral	\(\ce{[NiCl4]^2-}\) (paramagnetic)
4	\(dsp^2\)	square planar	\(\ce{[Ni(CN)4]^2-}\) (diamagnetic)
6	\(d^2sp^3\) (inner)	octahedral	\(\ce{[Co(NH3)6]^3+}\) (diamagnetic)
6	\(sp^3d^2\) (outer)	octahedral	\(\ce{[CoF6]^3-}\) (paramagnetic)

Class 12 Chemistry Formula Sheet (CBSE 2026-27)

1Solutions

Concentration terms

Henry's law and Raoult's law

Ideal and non-ideal solutions

Colligative properties

Molar mass of solute (\(M_2\))

van't Hoff factor and abnormal molar mass

2Electrochemistry

Galvanic cell

Nernst equation

Energy and equilibrium

Conductance

Variation with concentration

Electrolysis (Faraday's laws)

Batteries, fuel cell, corrosion

3Chemical Kinetics

Rate of reaction

Units of \(k\)

Zero order

First order

Pseudo first order

Temperature and collision theory

4The d- and f-Block Elements

Electronic configuration

Key properties

Potassium dichromate

Potassium permanganate

Lanthanoids and actinoids

5Coordination Compounds

Key terms

IUPAC naming rules

Isomerism

Valence bond theory

Crystal field theory

6Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

Preparation

Halogen exchange

Substitution: SN1 and SN2

Elimination and Grignard

Wurtz, Wurtz-Fittig, Fittig

Haloarenes

7Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers

Preparing alcohols

Preparing phenol

Reactions of alcohols

Reactions of phenol

Ethers

8Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

Preparing aldehydes and ketones

Reduction of the carbonyl group

Nucleophilic addition

Aldol and Cannizzaro

Tests that tell aldehydes from ketones

Preparing carboxylic acids

Reactions of carboxylic acids

9Amines

Preparation

Gabriel and Hoffmann

Basicity

Tests for amines

Aniline: ring reactions

Diazonium salts

10Biomolecules

Glucose: proof of structure

Carbohydrates

Proteins and enzymes

Nucleic acids, vitamins, hormones