Human Development

**MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT**

Development = Pattern of progressive, orderly, and predictable changes from conception until death | Involves physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes that are integrated and interconnected → Changes are not temporary; they follow sequences with definite relationships

Key distinction: Growth vs Development → Growth = increase in size (height, weight; measurable) | Development = changes with direction and sequence throughout life cycle

**THREE INTERWOVEN PROCESSES IN DEVELOPMENT:**

• Biological Processes: Changes involving genes, brain, heart, lungs, physical growth — inherited from parents

• Cognitive Processes: Mental activities — knowing, experiencing, thought, perception, attention, problem-solving, language, thinking

• Socio-Emotional Processes: Changes in interactions with others, emotions, personality, social relationships — child's hug to mother, affection to sibling, sorrow at loss

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**LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE (LSP) ON DEVELOPMENT**

LSP is the modern view studying development across entire human lifespan (conception to old age). Seven key assumptions:

1. **Lifelong Development**: Development occurs across ALL age groups from conception through old age | Includes both gains (childhood learning) and losses (aging — speed, memory) | These gains and losses interact dynamically

2. **Interwoven Processes**: Biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes are interconnected throughout lifespan — cannot be studied in isolation

3. **Multi-Directional Development**: Some dimensions increase while others decrease | Example: Adults gain wisdom and experience BUT lose speed in physical tasks (running, reaction time) | Different aspects develop at different rates

4. **Plasticity (Modifiability)**: Development is flexible and changeable throughout lifespan → Skills and abilities can be improved, developed, or modified even in old age | However, plasticity varies among individuals — some people more adaptable than others

5. **Historical Influence**: Development shaped by historical conditions and times → 20-year-olds during India's freedom struggle had different experiences than today's 20-year-olds | Career orientations today differ from 50 years ago — context matters

6. **Multi-Disciplinary Study**: Human development studied by psychology, anthropology, sociology, neurosciences — each discipline provides different perspectives

7. **Context-Responsive Development**: Individuals respond to and act on their contexts (inherited traits + physical environment + social, historical, cultural contexts) | Life events (death of parent, accident, earthquake, awards, jobs) shape developmental trajectory | People constantly change with changing contexts

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**GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, MATURATION, EVOLUTION (Box 3.1)**

**Growth** = Increase in size of body parts or organism | Measurable and quantifiable (height, weight) | Physical measurement only

**Development** = Broader process of growth and changes throughout life cycle | Changes have direction and predictable sequence | Includes growth as one aspect | All developmental changes affect what comes after

**Maturation** = Changes following orderly sequence, genetically determined → Largely dictated by genetic blueprint producing commonalities across humans | Example developmental milestones: sit without support (7 months) → stand with support (8 months) → walk (1 year) | "Unfolds from within" following inner, genetically-determined timetable characteristic of species | Special efforts cannot accelerate these behaviors if child maturationally not ready | Once physical structure sufficiently developed, proficiency requires environment and practice

**Evolution** = Species-specific changes over generations → Natural selection favors individuals best adapted to survive and reproduce → Changes passed from generation to generation | Proceeds very slowly — human emergence from great apes took ~14 million years | Homo sapiens emerged ~50,000 years ago

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**FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT**

**Heredity (Nature)**: Genetic contributions from parents

• Determines: skin color, hair color, eye color, height, weight, genetic predispositions

• Provides biological blueprint for development

• Influences physical characteristics and maturation timelines

**Environment (Nurture)**: External factors and experiences

• Physical environment: climate, living conditions, resources

• Social environment: family, peers, schools, community

• Cultural environment: traditions, values, beliefs

• Educational opportunities: access to learning, stimulation

**Context**: Broader circumstances shaping development

• Historical period: different time periods create different experiences

• Socioeconomic status: access to resources, opportunities

• Cultural background: traditions, values, practices

• Life events: positive (achievements) or negative (losses, accidents)

**Heredity-Environment Interaction**: Development result of interplay (not either-or) → Both nature and nurture essential → Same genes express differently in different environments → Environmental enrichment can modify genetic potential (plasticity concept)

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**OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES**

Major developmental periods across lifespan:

• Prenatal Stage: Conception to birth

• Infancy: Birth to end of 2nd year

• Childhood: 3rd year to 11th/12th year

• Adolescence: 12th/13th year to 18th/19th year

• Adulthood: 19th year onwards

• Old Age: Late adulthood (varies; typically 65+ years)

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**PRENATAL STAGE (Conception to Birth)**

**Duration**: Approximately 9 months (280 days)

**Three Periods of Prenatal Development**:

1. **Germinal Period** (First 2 weeks after conception)

• Fertilized egg (zygote) divides and travels to uterus

• Cell division rapidly increases

• Ends with implantation in uterus

2. **Embryonic Period** (Weeks 3-8)

• Rapid cell differentiation and organ formation begins

• Major structures (heart, brain, limbs) start developing

• Vulnerable to environmental influences (critical period)

• Heart begins beating by week 4

• Brain structures begin forming

3. **Fetal Period** (Week 9 until birth)

• Continued growth and organ refinement

• Fetus becomes more active

• Hair, nails develop

• Weight gain accelerates

• By 7 months, fetus viable outside womb

• Brain development continues; synaptic connections form

**Prenatal Development Characteristics**:

• Most rapid physical development occurs prenatally

• Sensitive/critical periods when certain developments must occur

• Brain development crucial — billions of neurons form

• Vulnerable to maternal factors (nutrition, infections, stress, substances)

• Environmental factors (teratogens) can damage development

**Prenatal Influences**:

• Maternal nutrition: affects fetal growth and brain development

• Maternal health: infections (German measles), diseases affect fetus

• Maternal emotions: stress may affect development

• Harmful substances: alcohol, drugs, smoking damage fetal development

• Medical care: prenatal checkups monitor normal development

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**INFANCY (Birth to End of 2nd Year)**

**Physical Development**:

• Rapid growth in height and weight (fastest growth period after prenatal)

• Motor development: develops from reflexes to voluntary movements → Head control (3 months) → Rolling over (4-5 months) → Sitting without support (6-7 months) → Crawling (8-9 months) → Standing with support (8-9 months) → Walking (12-15 months) → Running (18-24 months)

• Brain development: neural connections increase; myelination occurs → enables faster processing

• Sensory development: vision, hearing, touch develop → can distinguish faces by 2-3 months

**Cognitive Development**:

• Begins with reflexes (sucking, grasping, rooting)

• Learns through sensory exploration (Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage — 0-2 years)

• Object permanence develops: understands objects exist even when not visible (develops around 8 months) — crucial cognitive milestone

• Begins imitation of sounds and actions

• Language emerges: cooing (2-3 months) → babbling (4-6 months) → first words (12 months) → simple two-word sentences (18-24 months)

• Memory develops: can recognize familiar people and objects

**Socio-Emotional Development**:

• Social smile emerges (6-8 weeks): baby smiles in response to faces

• Attachment formation: develops strong bond with primary caregiver (usually mother) → Attachment crucial for emotional security and healthy development

• Stranger anxiety: shows fear of unfamiliar people (around 6-8 months) — sign of attachment

• Separation anxiety: distress when separated from caregiver (around 6 months onwards)

• Develops trust vs mistrust: depends on consistency of caregiving (Erikson's theory)

• Shows emotions: pleasure, displeasure, contentment, distress

• Begins social interaction: enjoys social play, vocalizes to interact

**Key Developmental Milestones**:

• Most children sit without support by 7 months

• Stand with support by 8 months

• Walk by 1 year

• Say first words by 12 months

• Show clear preferences for familiar people by 8-12 months

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**CHILDHOOD (3rd Year to 11th-12th Year)**

**Physical Development**:

• Growth rate slower than infancy but steady

• Height increases gradually

• Fine motor skills develop: drawing, writing, self-feeding improve

• Gross motor skills develop: running, jumping, climbing, balance improve

• Baby teeth fall out; permanent teeth emerge (around 6 years)

• Brain development continues: prefrontal cortex developing slowly

• Energy levels high; need regular physical activity

**Cognitive Development**:

• Piaget's Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): children learn through play and symbols

Egocentrism: sees world only from own perspective

Animism: attributes life to inanimate objects

Centration: focuses on one aspect of situation

Lack of conservation: doesn't understand that quantity remains same despite appearance change

• Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): logical thinking about concrete objects

Conservation: understands quantity unchanged

Decentration: can focus on multiple aspects

Reversibility: understands actions can be reversed

Classification: can organize objects into categories

• Language development: vocabulary increases dramatically (50 words at 2 years → 2500+ words by 5 years)

• Learns to read and write (5-6 years onwards)

• Develops understanding of right and wrong

• Learns problem-solving strategies

• Memory improves; can remember past events and stories

• Logical reasoning develops gradually

**Socio-Emotional Development**:

• Develops sense of autonomy and independence ("I want to do it myself")

• Forms friendships and peer relationships become important

• Develops self-concept: begins understanding self as separate person

• Learns social rules and cooperation

• Develops conscience: understands right and wrong (Kohlberg's preconventional morality)

• Shows emotions more appropriately: anger, fear, joy, sadness

• Cooperation with parents and teachers develops

• Begins competitive play and games with rules

• May experience anxiety, fears, jealousy

• Gender identity develops: understands being boy or girl

**Gender and Sex Roles (Box 3.2)**:

**Gender**: Psychological and social characteristics associated with being male or female → Learned through socialization

**Sex**: Biological characteristics determining male or female → Chromosomes (XX = female, XY = male)

**Sex Roles/Gender Roles**: Expected behaviors, attitudes, activities considered appropriate for males and females in a society

**Development of Gender Identity**:

• By age 2-3 years: children aware of own sex

• By age 4-5 years: understand gender permanence (staying same sex throughout life)

• Gender typing: acquiring gender-appropriate behaviors and preferences

• Influenced by: parents' socialization, peers, media, cultural norms

• Modeling: children imitate same-sex parent and peers

• Reinforcement: rewarded for gender-appropriate behavior; discouraged for opposite-gender behavior

• Cognitive approach: children develop gender schema (organized knowledge about gender)

**Cultural Context**: Gender roles vary across cultures → Some cultures have strict gender roles; others more flexible → Indian context: traditional gender roles still prevalent in many areas but changing in urban areas → Gender equality increasingly emphasized in education

**Developmental Milestone**: By end of childhood, children have developed clear gender identity and understanding of gender-appropriate behaviors (though continue refining throughout adolescence)

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**ADOLESCENCE (12th-13th Year to 18th-19th Year)**

**Definition**: Transition period between childhood and adulthood characterized by rapid physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes

**Physical Development (Puberty)**:

• Hormonal changes: increase in sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen)

• Growth spurt: rapid increase in height and weight (girls earlier ~10-14 years; boys ~12-16 years)

• Sexual maturation: development of reproductive capacity

• Secondary sexual characteristics develop:

Girls: breast development, hip widening, menstruation begins, body hair

Boys: deepening of voice, facial hair, body hair, muscular development

• Physical strength and coordination improve

• Brain development continues: prefrontal cortex matures (decision-making, impulse control)

• Sleep patterns change: tend to sleep later, need more sleep

• Acne common due to hormonal changes

**Cognitive Development**:

• Piaget's Formal Operational Stage (11 years onwards): abstract and logical thinking

Can think abstractly: imagine hypothetical situations

Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: can form hypotheses and test them logically

Can think about thinking (metacognition)

Idealism: develop strong ideals and beliefs about society

Can understand complex concepts: politics, philosophy, morality

Can plan for future: set goals, make long-term plans

• Language becomes sophisticated: can use metaphors, sarcasm, humor

• Develops moral reasoning (Kohlberg's conventional and post-conventional morality)

• Increases in problem-solving abilities

• Develops personal beliefs, values, ideologies

• Can understand multiple perspectives

**Socio-Emotional Development**:

• Identity formation: developing sense of self (Erikson's Identity vs Role Confusion stage) → Central task of adolescence → Explore different roles and values → Develop personal identity separate from parents

• Peer relationships become central: spending more time with friends

• May experience peer pressure: conforming to peer group norms

• Relationships with parents change: increasing independence, may have conflicts → Still rely on parents emotionally and financially

• Romantic relationships develop: interest in opposite/same-sex relationships

• Mood fluctuations: emotional ups and downs (due to hormonal changes and identity search)

• Self-consciousness increases: concern about body image, how others perceive them

• May experience emotional disturbances: anxiety, depression, low self-esteem

• Develops autonomy: increasing decision-making independence

• Values become personal rather than simply adopting parents' values

**Challenges of Adolescence**:

1. **Physical Changes and Body Image**:

• Rapid physical changes can cause self-consciousness

• Concern about appearance, attractiveness (especially early/late developers)

• May develop eating disorders, body dysmorphia

• Acne, growth spurts cause embarrassment

2. **Identity Crisis**:

• Confusion about who they are, what they want

• Exploring different identities, values, beliefs

• May feel lost or uncertain about future

• Can lead to identity achievement or confusion (Erikson)

3. **Peer Pressure and Social Acceptance**:

• Strong need to belong and fit in with peers

• May engage in risky behaviors to gain acceptance

• Pressure to conform to peer group norms

• Fear of rejection or being "different"

• Bullying and social exclusion issues

4. **Family Conflicts**:

• Desire for independence vs parental control

• Disagreements over freedom, rules, curfew

• Generation gap in values and beliefs

• Communication breakdowns with parents

• Yet still need parental support and guidance

5. **Academic Pressure**:

• Increasing academic demands and expectations

• Career/college decisions create stress

• Competition with peers

• Pressure to excel in studies and extracurriculars

• Can lead to anxiety, depression

6. **Emotional and Mental Health Issues**:

• Increased risk of depression and anxiety

• Mood swings and emotional volatility

• Low self-esteem, self-doubt

• Risk of substance abuse (due to peer pressure, self-medication)

• Eating disorders (anorexia, bulimia)

• Suicidal thoughts (rare but serious)

7. **Sexual and Romantic Issues**:

• Developing sexuality and sexual awareness

• Confusion about sexual orientation/identity

• Pressure regarding sexual activity

• Risk of unprotected sex, STIs, pregnancy

• Relationship difficulties and heartbreak

• Sexual harassment or abuse

8. **Future Uncertainty**:

• Anxiety about career choices

• Uncertainty about future direction

• Pressure to decide on college/career path

• Fear of failure or making wrong choices

**Indian Context of Adolescence**:

• Educational pressure: intense competition for college entrance exams (JEE, NEET, etc.)

• Parental expectations high: often determined by academic performance

• Gender differences still present: girls may face more restrictions on freedom

• Traditional values vs modern aspirations: tension between family expectations and personal desires

• Early marriage pressures in some communities (especially for girls)

• Caste and religious considerations in some contexts

• Urban vs rural differences: opportunities and challenges differ

• Increasing awareness of mental health issues but stigma still present

**Protective Factors Supporting Adolescent Development**:

• Strong family relationships and support

• Positive peer relationships and friendships

• Mentoring by trusted adults

• Engagement in meaningful activities (sports, arts, academics)

• Developing coping skills

• Access to counseling/mental health support

• Clear values and sense of purpose

• Sense of belonging to community

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**ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE**

**EARLY ADULTHOOD (18/19 years to ~40 years)**

**Physical Development**:

• Physical growth complete; height stable

• Peak physical condition (20s-30s)

• Physical strength and energy highest

• Reproductive years (childbearing possible)

• Gradually declining metabolism and strength (30s onwards)

• Sensory abilities (vision, hearing) begin declining slightly

**Cognitive Development**:

• Abstract and logical thinking well-established

• Peak cognitive abilities (processing speed, fluid intelligence highest)

• Practical problem-solving improved through experience

• Develops expertise in chosen fields

• Can handle complex, abstract tasks

• May shift from learning to applying knowledge

**Socio-Emotional Development**:

• Establishing intimate relationships (Erikson's Intimacy vs Isolation stage) → Central task: forming deep relationships → Marriage, partnership, or choosing singlehood → Commitment and vulnerability

• Career development: choosing occupation, establishing career

• May become parents: child-rearing responsibilities

• Achieve independence from parents: financial, emotional, decision-making

• Develop personal values and worldview

• Increased responsibilities: work, family, finances

• Sense of competence and contribution to society

• May experience stress: balancing work, relationships, family

**MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40 years to ~65 years)**

**Physical Development**:

• Visible aging: wrinkles, gray hair, weight gain possible

• Physical strength and stamina decline gradually

• Health concerns increase: hypertension, diabetes, heart disease risks

• Metabolism slows: weight management harder

• Vision and hearing continue declining

• Women: menopause (cessation of menstruation, hormonal changes)

• Men: gradual decline in hormone levels (andropause)

• Recovery from illness/injury takes longer

**Cognitive Development**:

• Crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge) peaks

• Fluid intelligence (processing speed, problem-solving) may decline slightly

• Practical wisdom and judgment improve

• Experience compensates for any cognitive decline

• May develop deeper understanding of complex issues

**Socio-Emotional Development**:

• Generativity vs Stagnation (Erikson): concern for establishing legacy, contributing to next generation → Mentoring younger people → Focus on children's development → Concern for social issues → May feel stagnant if not achieving goals

• Peak career achievement: highest earning years, leadership positions

• Reassessment of life goals and values (sometimes "midlife crisis") → Questioning choices made → Desire for change or renewal → May experience depression or anxiety

• Parent-child relationships evolve: adult children becoming independent

• Increased responsibility for elderly parents ("sandwich generation") → Care for aging parents AND supporting own children

• Marital relationships deepen or face challenges

• Reflects on accomplishments and regrets

• Seeks meaning and purpose in life

• Friendships and social relationships valued

**OLD AGE (65+ years)**

**Physical Development**:

• Significant physical decline: strength, speed, agility decrease

• Chronic diseases more common: arthritis, heart disease, diabetes

• Vision and hearing decline significantly

• Memory may decline (especially short-term)

• Sleep patterns change: sleep less, wake more often

• Sexual interest may decline (but can continue)

• Reduced energy and stamina

• Increased recovery time from illness/injury

• Appearance changes: wrinkles, thinning hair, posture changes

• Increased risk of falls, fractures (brittle bones)

**Cognitive Development**:

• Fluid intelligence (processing speed, working memory) declines

• Crystallized intelligence (knowledge, vocabulary) maintained or improved

• Processing speed slower: takes longer to react, learn new information

• Short-term memory may decline; long-term memory often preserved

• Some cognitive decline normal; severe decline (dementia) not inevitable

• Wisdom may increase: integration of experience and knowledge

• Problem-solving abilities remain if not affected by disease

**Socio-Emotional Development**:

• Ego Integrity vs Despair (Erikson): major task is accepting one's life → Review of life achievements and regrets → Acceptance of mortality → Achieve ego integrity (satisfaction with life) or despair (regret, depression)

• Retirement: transition from work role; loss of identity, routine, social connections

• Grief and loss: death of spouse, friends, peers; loss of independence

• Changed family roles: grandparents, elders with reduced authority

• Reduced social contact: narrowing of social circle (friends dying, mobility limited)

• Legacy concerns: how to be remembered, passing knowledge/values to younger generation

• Increased life review: reflecting on past experiences and meaning

• Continued growth possible: learning, volunteering, creative pursuits

• Wisdom and perspective valued by others

• May experience depression, loneliness (especially if isolated)

• Concerns about death and mortality more prominent

• Financial concerns: managing on fixed income (pension)

• Health concerns dominate: medical appointments, medications

• May live with family, in assisted living, or independently

• Continued need for social connections and meaningful activities

**Indian Context of Old Age**:

• Joint family system: traditionally elderly live with children/extended family → Provides care and social contact → But increasing trend toward nuclear families affecting this

• Respect and honor for elders: cultural value of elder wisdom and authority

• Dependency concerns: fear of burden on family

• Limited pension/social security: financial vulnerability

• Healthcare access issues in rural areas

• Tendency toward multi-generational households affecting roles and autonomy

• Filial piety expected: children caring for elderly parents as duty

• Gender differences: elderly widows often face greater challenges

• Increasing awareness of elder abuse and neglect

• Retirement adjustment difficult due to work-centered identity

**Successful Aging Factors**:

• Maintenance of physical health through exercise, nutrition

• Cognitive engagement: learning, puzzles, social interaction

• Meaningful social relationships and support networks

• Continued sense of purpose and contribution

• Adaptation to losses and changes

• Acceptance of aging process

• Financial security

• Access to healthcare

• Maintaining independence as long as possible

• Legacy-building activities

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**CONTEXT IN DEVELOPMENT**

**Physical Context**:

• Living conditions (urban, rural, crowded, clean)

• Climate and geography (affects food, activities, health)

• Resources available (water, electricity, healthcare)

• Exposure to pollution, toxins, hazards

**Social Context**:

• Family structure (joint, nuclear, single-parent, extended)

• Socioeconomic status (poverty affects nutrition, education, stress)

• Educational opportunities (quality schools, accessibility)

• Healthcare access (preventive care, treatment availability)

• Community support systems

**Cultural Context**:

• Cultural values and beliefs about development

• Gender roles and expectations (vary across cultures)

• Religious practices and beliefs

• Traditional practices and rituals

• Language and communication patterns

• Food, clothing, customs

• Marriage and family practices

**Historical Context**:

• Wars, famines, natural disasters affecting development

• Economic conditions: inflation, unemployment, opportunities

• Political systems and freedoms

• Technology availability (internet, modern conveniences)

• Social movements and changes in attitudes

**Indian Developmental Context Specifics**:

• Diversity: vast differences between regions, communities, castes

• Education: expanding but unequal access (gender, urban-rural gap)

• Economic factors: poverty affects childhood nutrition and development

• Gender inequalities: persisting differences in opportunities (education, career, marriage)

• Traditional values: family-centered, respect for elders, arranged marriages (though changing)

• Rapid modernization: clash between traditional and modern values

• Technology: increasing internet/smartphone access affecting development

• Healthcare: improving but rural areas still underserved

• Joint family system: affecting child-rearing and elder care

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**KEY TAKEAWAYS FOR CBSE EXAMS**

**Definitions (MUST KNOW — Common exam question)**:

• Development: Pattern of progressive, orderly, predictable changes from conception to death

• Growth: Increase in size (measurable)

• Maturation: Genetically-determined orderly changes (unfolds from within)

• Life-Span Perspective: Study of development across entire lifespan

**Life-Span Perspective Assumptions** (7 points — frequently asked):

1. Lifelong | 2. Interwoven processes | 3. Multi-directional | 4. Plastic | 5. Historical influence | 6. Multi-disciplinary | 7. Context-responsive

**Three Processes**: Biological + Cognitive + Socio-Emotional (ALWAYS interconnected)

**Stages and Key Milestones**:

• Prenatal: 3 periods (germinal, embryonic, fetal)

• Infancy: Motor development sequence, attachment, language emergence

• Childhood: Sensorimotor → Preoperational → Concrete operational (Piaget)

• Adolescence: Identity development, puberty, formal operational thinking

• Adulthood: Career, relationships, generativity

• Old Age: Ego integrity, retirement, legacy

**Theorist Matching** (High-frequency exam question):

• Piaget: Stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational)

• Erikson: Psychosocial stages (trust vs mistrust → autonomy vs shame → initiative vs guilt → industry vs inferiority → identity vs role confusion → intimacy vs isolation → generativity vs stagnation → ego integrity vs despair)

• Kohlberg: Moral development stages

**Important Distinctions**:

• Growth vs Development: Size vs integrated changes

• Maturation vs Learning: Genetically-determined vs experience-based

• Nature vs Nurture: Heredity + Environment (both matter)

• Sex vs Gender: Biological vs psychological/social

**Critical Periods**: Prenatal stage and infancy — vulnerable to environmental influences (teratogens, neglect)

**Plasticity**: Development can be modified throughout lifespan — skills can be improved, abilities developed

**Object Permanence**: Develops around 8 months; crucial cognitive milestone (infant understands objects exist when not seen)

**Attachment**: Develops during infancy; crucial for emotional development and security

**Gender Development**: Develops 2-7 years; influenced by socialization, modeling, reinforcement

**Adolescent Challenges**: Body image, identity crisis, peer pressure, family conflicts, academic stress, emotional health, future uncertainty, sexual issues

**Erikson's Identity vs Role Confusion**: Central task of adolescence

**Generativity**: Key concern of middle adulthood — contributing to next generation

**Ego Integrity**: Key task of old age — accepting one's life

**Context Matters**: Physical, social, cultural, historical contexts all influence development → Same stage looks different in different contexts