Structure and Physiography of India

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA

Overview: Geological Structure and Evolution

**Physiography** is the outcome of structure, process, and stage of development. India's landforms are shaped by **endogenic forces** (internal) and **exogenic forces** (external) acting over 4,600 million years of Earth's history.

**Plate Movement and Indian Plate**: The Indian plate was once south of the equator and much larger, with the Australian plate as a part of it. Over millions of years, the Indian plate moved northward—a movement that continues today with significant consequences for the Indian subcontinent's physical environment.

**Three Geological Divisions of India**:

Peninsular Block

Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains

Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain

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THE PENINSULAR BLOCK

**Definition and Boundary**: The Peninsular Block is the oldest and most stable geological division of India. Its northern boundary runs irregularly from Kachchh along the western flank of the Aravali Range near Delhi, then roughly parallel to the Yamuna and Ganga as far as the Rajmahal Hills and Ganga delta.

**Geological Characteristics**:

Composed essentially of very ancient **gneisses and granites**

Rigid and stable block since the Cambrian period

Remains largely unaffected by tectonic activity except for vertical movements and block faulting

Small portions of the western coast are submerged beneath the sea

**Tectonic Features**:

**Rift valleys**: Narmada, Tapi, and Mahanadi rift valleys created by vertical crustal movements

**Satpura block mountains**: Example of block faulting

These features resulted from the Indo-Australian Plate's movements

**Mountain Types and Rivers**:

Mountains are **relict and residual** (worn-down ancient ranges): Aravali hills, Nallamala hills, Javadi hills, Veliconda hills, Palkonda range, Mahendragiri hills

River valleys have **shallow gradients** and low elevation differences

**East-flowing rivers** form deltas: Mahanadi, Krishna, Kaveri, and Godavari deltas entering the Bay of Bengal

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THE HIMALAYAS AND OTHER PENINSULAR MOUNTAINS

**Geological Nature**: Unlike the rigid Peninsular Block, the Himalayas and Peninsular mountains are:

**Young, weak, and flexible** in geological structure

Still subjected to interplay of exogenic and endogenic forces

Continuously developing faults, folds, and thrust planes

**Landforms and River Systems**:

Rivers are **fast-flowing** and in their **youthful stage**

Characteristic landforms indicate youth: gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, waterfalls, steep gradients

Tectonic in origin and actively shaped by river erosion

**Contrast with Peninsular Rivers**: Himalayan rivers have steeper gradients and more energetic erosion compared to Peninsular rivers, which flow on mature flood plains with meanders and ox-bow lakes.

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INDO-GANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA PLAIN

**Origin and Formation**:

Originally a **geo-synclinal depression** (a large depressed area of Earth's crust)

Maximum development during the third phase of Himalayan mountain formation (~64 million years ago)

Gradually filled by sediments brought by Himalayan and Peninsular rivers

**Alluvial Deposits**:

Average depth of alluvium: **1,000-2,000 meters**

Continuous deposition process ongoing

Fertile soil supports major agricultural activities and dense population

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PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF INDIA

India's physiography is classified into six major divisions based on relief, structure, and geomorphological features. These divisions reflect variations in geological structure with far-reaching impacts on climate, vegetation, soils, and human habitation.

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THE NORTHERN AND NORTHEASTERN MOUNTAINS

The Himalayas: Structure and Extent

**Orientation and Configuration**:

Consist of **parallel mountain ranges** with varying orientation:

**Northwest-southeast direction** in northwestern India

**East-west direction** in Darjeeling and Sikkim regions

**Southwest-northwest direction** in Arunachal Pradesh

**North-south direction** in Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram

**Dimensions**:

Length of Great Himalayan range (central axial range): **~2,500 km** from east to west

Width: **160-400 km** from north to south

Acts as a **strong wall barrier** between Indian subcontinent and Central/East Asian countries

**Important Ranges**:

Greater Himalayan range

Great Himalayas

Shiwalik Range (Outer Himalayas)

**Multi-Dimensional Divide**: The Himalayas function as:

**Physical barrier**: Separates tectonic plates and regions

**Climatic divide**: Blocks monsoon winds; creates different climate zones on either side

**Drainage divide**: Separates river systems flowing toward the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal

**Cultural divide**: Different cultural, linguistic, and ethnic regions on either side

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THE NORTHERN PLAINS

Formation and Extent

**Origin**: Alluvial deposits brought by three major rivers—**Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra**

**Dimensions**:

Extends approximately **3,200 km** from east to west

Average width: **150-300 km**

Maximum alluvium depth: **1,000-2,000 meters**

Internal Division: Three Major Zones (North to South)

**1. Bhabar**:

Narrow belt of **8-10 km** parallel to Shiwalik foothills

Located at the break of slope where mountain meets plain

Heavy materials (rocks and boulders) deposited by mountain streams

Streams often **disappear** into this zone due to high permeability

Contains underground water flow

**2. Tarai**:

Width: **10-20 km** south of Bhabar

Streams and rivers **re-emerge** without clearly demarcated channels

Creates **marshy and swampy conditions** with waterlogged areas

Luxurious natural vegetation growth

Rich and varied wildlife habitat

Name "Tarai" derived from local terminology meaning marshy region

**3. Alluvial Plains** (South of Tarai):

Divided into:

**Bhangar** (Old alluvial deposits): Older terraces, brownish soil, slightly elevated

**Khadar** (New alluvial deposits): Recent deposits, light-colored soil, frequently flooded

**Characteristic Landforms of Alluvial Plains**:

**Sand bars**: Linear ridges of sand in river channels

**Meanders**: Winding curves of mature rivers

**Ox-bow lakes**: Crescent-shaped lakes formed when meanders cut off

**Braided channels**: Multiple interconnected river channels in shallow water

Examples: Brahmaputra plains known for riverine islands and extensive sand bars

**Flood-Prone Characteristics**:

Periodic floods shifting river courses

Creates dynamic landscape

Requires management for agriculture and settlements

Deltaic Features

**Largest Deltas**:

**Sundarbans Delta**: Formed by Ganga-Brahmaputra rivers (largest delta in world)

Characterized by tidal influence, mangrove vegetation, and wildlife

**General Characteristics**:

Featureless plain with elevation: **50-150 meters** above mean sea level

Mouths form some of world's largest deltas

Water Divides

**Haryana and Delhi**: Form water divide between **Indus and Ganga** river systems

Drainage flows away from this divide toward respective ocean basins

Brahmaputra Special Features

Flows from **northeast to southwest** direction

Takes approximately **90° southward turn** at Dhubri before entering Bangladesh

Creates unique drainage pattern compared to west-flowing Indus-Sutlej rivers

Agricultural and Population Significance

**Fertile Alluvial Soil Cover**:

Supports variety of crops: wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute

Seasonal flooding deposits fertile silt (natural nutrient replenishment)

Supports **largest agricultural output** in India

Home to **highest population density** due to agricultural productivity and river transport

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THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU

General Characteristics

**Extent and Shape**:

Irregular **triangle** bounded by outer ranges

Elevation: **150 m** above river plains to **600-900 m** at highest points

One of the **oldest and most stable landmasses** of India

Covers approximately **50% of India's geographical area**

Boundaries and Extensions

**Outer Boundary Formed By**:

**Delhi Ridge** (northwest): Extension of Aravali Range

**Rajmahal Hills** (east): Granite and metamorphic rocks

**Gir Range** (west): Basaltic plateaus

**Cardamom Hills** (south): Highest southern extension

**Northeastern Extension**:

**Shillong Plateau** and **Karbi-Anglong Plateau** (detached portions)

Separated from main block by faults and depression

Internal Plateau Divisions

**Patland Plateaus** (table-land platforms):

Hazaribagh Plateau

Palamu Plateau

Ranchi Plateau

Malwa Plateau

Coimbatore Plateau

Karnataka Plateau

Each has distinct elevations, rock types, and drainage patterns.

Slope and Drainage Pattern

**General Slope**: **West to east**—proven by **eastward flow of major rivers**

**Rivers flowing to Bay of Bengal**:

Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri (form deltas)

Brahmani, Subarnarekha (flow through Eastern Ghats)

**Rivers flowing to Arabian Sea**:

Narmada, Tapi, Periyar, Sabarmati (no deltas formed—shorter courses)

Characteristic Landforms

**Unique Physiographic Features**:

**Tors**: Isolated rocky hills formed by weathering

**Block mountains**: Created by faulting and uplift (Satpura, Maikal)

**Rift valleys**: Depressed areas between fault lines (Narmada-Tapi)

**Spurs**: Projecting ridges of hills

**Bare rocky structures**: Exposed metamorphic rocks due to denudation

**Hummocky hills**: Irregular hills with multiple peaks

**Quartzite dykes**: Hard rock walls offering natural sites for water storage (dams)

**Black soil presence**: Western and northwestern plateau rich in volcanic minerals

Tectonic Activity

**Recurrent Movements**:

Multiple phases of upliftment and submergence

**Crustal faulting** and fractures created relief diversity

**Bhima Fault**: Notable for recurrent seismic activities—shows plateau's continuing instability

**Spatial Variations**:

Different regions show different relief patterns

Northwestern plateau: Complex relief with ravines and gorges

Southern plateau: More stable with plateaus

Ravines in Northwestern Region

**Chambal, Bhind, and Morena Ravines**:

Caused by river downcutting through soft sedimentary rocks

Hazardous terrain with steep slopes

Created by fluvial erosion in structurally weak zones

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SUBDIVISION OF PENINSULAR PLATEAU

The Peninsular plateau is divided into **three broad groups** based on prominent relief features:

1. THE DECCAN PLATEAU

**Boundaries and Extent**:

**Western boundary**: Western Ghats

**Eastern boundary**: Eastern Ghats

**Northern boundary**: Satpura, Maikal range, Mahadeo hills

Covers major areas of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra

**Western Ghats: Characteristics and Importance**

**Local Names**:

**Sahyadri**: In Maharashtra

**Nilgiri Hills**: In Karnataka and Tamil Nadu

**Anaimalai (Anai Mudi) Hills**: In Kerala

**Cardamom Hills**: In Kerala and Tamil Nadu

**Physical Features**:

**More continuous** than Eastern Ghats

**Higher elevation** than Eastern Ghats

Average elevation: **~1,500 m**

Height **increases from north to south**

**Highest Peaks**:

**Anaimudi** (2,695 m): Highest peak of entire Peninsular plateau on Anaimalai hills

**Dodabetta** (2,637 m): On Nilgiri hills

**Significance**:

**Source of most Peninsular rivers**: Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Narmada originate here

**Natural barrier** to moist southwest monsoon winds (creates rain shadow effect)

**High rainfall zone** on windward side

**Biodiversity hotspot**: Distinct vegetation zones at different elevations

**Eastern Ghats: Characteristics**

**Physical Features**:

**Discontinuous and low hills**

Highly eroded by eastward-flowing rivers

Less continuous than Western Ghats

Lower elevation generally

**Important Ranges and Hills**:

Javadi Hills

Palconda Range

Nallamala Hills

Mahendragiri Hills

**River Erosion Impact**:

Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri have carved deep gorges

Rivers break through hills forming gaps

Have created fertile deltas on coastal plains

**Meeting Point**:

Eastern and Western Ghats meet at **Nilgiri Hills**

Forms a natural junction point between two ghat systems

2. THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS

**Boundaries and Location**:

Bounded by **Aravali Range** in the west

Extends eastward and northward

Bridges peninsular plateau with northern plains

Includes areas of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh

**Satpura Range**:

Series of **scarped plateaus** (step-like formations)

Elevation: **600-900 m** above mean sea level

Northernmost boundary of Deccan plateau

**Relict mountains**: Highly denuded and discontinuous

Example of ancient mountains worn down by erosion over geological time

**Aravali Range**:

Western boundary of Central Highlands

**Oldest mountain range** of India (Pre-Cambrian age)

Highly eroded and fragmented

Low elevation in most places

**Extension Toward Jaisalmer**:

Peninsular plateau extension visible as far as **Jaisalmer** in western Rajasthan

Covered by **longitudinal sand ridges** and **barchans** (crescent-shaped dunes)

Shows transition from plateau to desert

**Metamorphic Rock Deposits**:

Region underwent **metamorphic processes** in geological history

Evidence of metamorphic rocks: marble, slate, gneiss, schist

Indicates high pressure and temperature conditions in past

**Elevation and Slope**:

General elevation: **700-1,000 m** above mean sea level

Slopes toward **north and northeastern directions**

Creates drainage pattern toward northern plains

**Tributaries of Yamuna**:

Most tributaries originate in **Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges** (part of Central Highlands)

Flow northward to join Yamuna

**Banas River**:

**Only significant tributary** of Chambal River originating from Aravalli in west

Shows importance of western range as water source

**Chotanagpur Plateau**:

**Eastern extension** of Central Highlands

Formed by Rajmahal hills as southern boundary

Large reserve of **mineral resources** (coal, iron ore, mica, limestone)

Sustains mining industries and industrial development

3. THE NORTHEASTERN PLATEAU

**Origin and Formation**:

Extension of main Peninsular plateau

Created by **huge fault** formed during northeastward movement of Indian plate during Himalayan origin

Depression between **Rajmahal Hills** (south) and **Meghalaya Plateau** (north) filled by riverine deposits

**Separation from Main Block**:

**Malda Fault** in West Bengal separates Meghalaya plateau from Chotanagpur plateau

Distinct geological structure from main peninsula

**Meghalaya Plateau: Subdivisions**

**Three Sub-divisions** (named after tribal groups):

1. **Garo Hills**: Western section

2. **Khasi Hills**: Central section

3. **Jaintia Hills**: Eastern section

**Karbi Anglong Hills**:

Extension of Meghalaya plateau system

Located in Assam

Similar characteristics to Meghalaya plateau

**Mineral Resources**:

**Coal deposits**: Major coal reserves

**Iron ore**: High-quality deposits

**Sillimanite**: Aluminum silicate mineral

**Limestone**: Abundant deposits

**Uranium**: Radioactive mineral deposits

Similar to Chotanagpur in mineral wealth

**Climate and Weathering**:

**Maximum rainfall** from southwest monsoon in India

Receives over 11,000 mm rainfall annually (one of world's wettest places)

Cherrapunji famous for extreme rainfall

**Surface Characteristics**:

**Highly eroded surface** due to excessive rainfall and fluvial action

Bare rocky surfaces in some areas (e.g., Cherrapunji)

**Devoid of permanent vegetation** in exposed areas despite high rainfall (due to soil erosion and leaching)

Dense forests in other areas (megafauna habitat)

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THE INDIAN DESERT

Location and Extent

**Position**: To the **northwest of Aravali Hills**

**Alternative Name**: **Marusthali** (meaning "land of death")

**States Covered**: Parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab

Topography and Landforms

**Undulating Topography**:

**Longitudinal dunes**: Sand ridges aligned with wind direction

**Barchans**: Crescent-shaped sand dunes moving with wind

**Mushroom rocks**: Rocks shaped by wind and sand abrasion (pedestal rocks)

**Shifting dunes**: Active sand dunes constantly moving and changing position

**Oasis** (mostly in southern part): Scattered water sources supporting vegetation

Climate Characteristics

**Precipitation**:

Receives **below 150 mm** annual rainfall

Classified as **arid climate**

Extreme evaporation exceeds precipitation (water-deficit region)

**Vegetation Cover**:

**Sparse vegetation** adapted to drought

Xerophytic plants (drought-resistant)

Low vegetation density

Geological History

**Mesozoic Era Formation**:

During Mesozoic era (225-65 million years ago), this region was **under the sea**

Evidence from **wood fossils** at Aakal wood fossil park

**Marine deposits** found near Brahmsar, Jaisalmer

Age of wood fossils: **~180 million years**

Indicates ancient ocean coverage

**Current Rock Structure**:

Underlying rock is **extension of Peninsular plateau** basement

Covered by desert surface features due to extreme conditions

Shows transition from stable plateau to desert

Geomorphological Processes

**Surface Carving Agents**:

**Physical (mechanical) weathering**: Dominant process in desert

Extreme temperature variations causing rock breakdown

**Wind action (aeolian processes)**: Sand abrasion, deflation, dune formation

Limited chemical weathering due to low moisture

Drainage Pattern

**River Characteristics**:

Most rivers are **ephemeral** (seasonal, flowing only during rains)

Flow only during monsoon season

Disappear during dry season

**Luni River**:

Only river of **some significance** in southern desert

Permanent flow due to adequate rainfall in source region

Flows southeastward

**Inland Drainage**:

Streams disappear after flowing short distances

Join lakes or **playas** (dry lake beds with seasonal water)

Create **internal drainage basin**—water doesn't reach ocean

Typical of **endorheic drainage** pattern

Water Resources and Salt

**Lakes and Playas**:

Contain **brackish water** (saline water)

High salt concentration due to evaporation

**Primary source of salt extraction** in region

Little agricultural use due to salinity

**Water Deficit**:

Low precipitation + high evaporation = severe water scarcity

Requires irrigation for agriculture

Groundwater often saline

Orientation Divisions

**Two Parts Based on Slope**:

1. **Northern part**: Slopes toward **Sindh** (Pakistan)

2. **Southern part**: Slopes toward **Rann of Kachchh** (salt marsh)

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THE COASTAL PLAINS

Introduction

India has extensive coastline with diverse coastal features shaped by **submergence and emergence** processes.

Classification

**Two Major Types**:

1. Western Coastal Plains

2. Eastern Coastal Plains

**Distinguishing Features**:

Based on **location**

Based on **active geomorphological processes**

Creates different characteristics in width, delta formation, port development

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WESTERN COASTAL PLAINS

Geological Nature: Submerged Coastal Plain

**Type**: Example of **emergent coastal plain** (land recently submerged)

**Historical Evidence**:

City of **Dwaraka** (mentioned in ancient texts) was once part of mainland

Now submerged under water along west coast

Indicates recent submergence

**Result of Submergence**:

**Narrow belt** (20-80 km width varies)

**Natural ports and harbors** developed due to deep water near shore

Indented coastline creates good harbor conditions

Extent and Subdivisions

**North to South Extent**: From **Gujarat coast to Kerala coast**

**Regional Divisions**:

1. **Kachchh and Kathiawar Coast** (Gujarat)

Northern section

Kachchh: Desert transition to sea

Kathiawar: Peninsula jutting into Arabian Sea

Highly saline environment (salt marshes)

2. **Konkan Coast** (Maharashtra)

Narrow, rocky coastline

Steep cliffs

Fishing communities

3. **Goan Coast** (Goa)

Narrow beach strips

Hill-sea interface

4. **Malabar Coast** (Karnataka and Kerala)

Southern and most developed section

Lagoons and backwaters

Width Characteristics

**Narrow in Middle Section**:

Narrowest between Gujarat-Maharashtra region

Mountains extend close to sea

**Broader Toward North and South**:

Northern Gujarat: Broader plain

Southern Kerala: Broader plain

**Relief Pattern**:

Western Ghats come close to coast

Creates terrain constraints for development

Limited flat land for urban and agricultural settlement

River Features: Absence of Deltas

**No Delta Formation**:

Rivers are **short and swift** (high gradient)

Insufficient sediment load for delta formation

Rivers lose energy reaching sea

Tidal action disperses sediment

**Contrast with Eastern Deltas**:

Eastern rivers carry more sediment from longer courses

Create substantial deltas

Kayals (Backwaters): Special Feature

**Definition**: Shallow lagoons separated from sea by narrow sand bars

**Location**: Primarily along **Malabar coast** of Kerala

**Characteristics**:

Created by sea submergence and barrier formation

Brackish water (mix of salt and fresh water)

Narrow sand bar separates from sea

**Uses**:

**Fishing**: Primary economic activity

**Inland navigation**: Water transport between coastal settlements

**Tourism**: Aesthetic and recreational value

**Nehru Trophy Vallamkali**:

Famous **boat race** held annually

Location: **Punnamada Kayal**, Kerala

Tourist attraction showcasing traditional boat culture

Important Ports

**Major Natural Ports**:

**Kandla**: Gujarat (northernmost)

**Mazagaon**: Mumbai, Maharashtra

**JLN Port (Jawaharlal Nehru Port)**: Navi Mumbai—major container port

**Navha Sheva**: Navi Mumbai

**Marmagao**: Goa

**Mangalore**: Karnataka (important for mineral exports)

**Cochin (Kochi)**: Kerala (major international port)

**Port Development Advantage**:

Natural harbor conditions due to submergence

Deep water near shore reduces dredging needs

Protected from waves by peninsulas and islands

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EASTERN COASTAL PLAINS

Geological Nature: Emergent Coast

**Type**: **Emergent coastal plain**—land recently emerged from sea

**Characteristics**:

**Broader than western coast** (100-150 km width)

Result of river sedimentation building land seaward

Active delta formation ongoing

Flat, low-lying terrain

Delta Formation: Key Feature

**Four Major Deltas**:

1. **Mahanadi Delta**: Odisha (Cuttack region)

2. **Godavari Delta**: Andhra Pradesh

3. **Krishna Delta**: Andhra Pradesh-Telangana

4. **Kaveri Delta**: Tamil Nadu

**Delta Characteristics**:

**Well-developed** structures

Formed by eastward-flowing rivers

Triangular shape with multiple distributaries

Rich alluvial soil

Support dense population and agriculture

Important for rice cultivation

**Why Deltas Form Here**:

Rivers carry heavy sediment load from plateau and highlands

Gentle gradient allows sediment deposition

Bay of Bengal provides base level for delta building

River mouth provides protection from wave action

Continental Shelf and Port Development

**Extensive Continental Shelf**:

Extends **up to 500 km** into sea (wider than western shelf)

Shallow water extends far from shore

Creates navigational challenges

**Limited Port Development**:

**Fewer deep-water ports** compared to western coast

Continental shelf requires dredging for ship passage

Natural harbor development difficult

Must build artificial breakwaters and jetties

**Existing Ports**:

**Visakhapatnam (Vishakhapatnam)**: Andhra Pradesh—major port despite challenges

**Paradip**: Odisha—mineral export port

**Chennai**: Tamil Nadu—major port

**Ennore**: Tamil Nadu

**Disadvantage**:

Navigation hazards due to shallow waters

Seasonal flooding of deltas

Delta instability in some regions

Comparison Summary: Western vs Eastern Coastal Plains

| Feature | Western | Eastern |

|---------|---------|---------|

| Type | Submerged | Emergent |

| Width | Narrow (20-80 km) | Broad (100-150 km) |

| Deltas | Absent | Well-developed |

| Ports | Natural, numerous | Fewer, artificial |

| Rivers | Short, no deltas | Long, form deltas |

| Continental Shelf | Narrow | Extended (500 km) |

| Backwaters | Kayals present | Deltaic channels |

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THE ISLANDS

Two Major Island Groups

**Location and Extent**:

1. **Bay of Bengal Islands** (east)

2. **Arabian Sea Islands** (west)

Bay of Bengal Islands

**Number and Location**:

Approximately **572 islands and islets**

Situated roughly between **6°N-14°N latitude** and **92°E-94°E longitude**

Extend over 800 km length

**Principal Island Groups**:

**Ritchie's Archipelago**: Northern group

**Labyrinth Island**: Complex island group

**Broad Categories**:

1. **Andaman Islands** (North)

Larger and more numerous

More developed

Capital: Port Blair

2. **Nicobar Islands** (South)

Smaller group

More remote

Tribal population

Protected area status

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KEY EXAM-IMPORTANT POINTS

**Map-Based Questions**:

Locate Himalayas, Western/Eastern Ghats, Aravali, Satpura

Identify river basins: Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, Kaveri

Mark physiographic divisions: Northern Plains, Peninsula, Desert, Coastal Plains

Identify states in each physiographic zone

**Process Understanding**:

How plate movement created Himalayan mountains

How river erosion creates different landforms in young vs mature mountains

Why eastern rivers form deltas but western rivers don't

How submergence vs emergence creates different coastal plains

**Definition-Based Questions**:

Physiography, relief, relict mountains, rift valleys, gorges, braided channels, barchans, tors

Difference between Bhabar, Tarai, Bhangar, Khadar zones

**Comparative Questions**:

Peninsular vs Himalayan characteristics

Western vs Eastern Ghats

Northern vs Peninsular rivers

Western vs Eastern Coastal Plains

**Resource-Based Questions**:

Mineral resources of Chotanagpur, Meghalaya

Agricultural productivity of alluvial plains

Fishing grounds along coasts

Salt production in desert regions