Natural Vegetation

NATURAL VEGETATION

**Natural vegetation** refers to a plant community that has been left undisturbed over a long time, allowing individual species to adjust themselves to climate and soil conditions as fully as possible. It is distinguished from planted/cultivated vegetation which is under human supervision and management.

**India's Natural Vegetation Diversity:**

Himalayan heights display temperate vegetation

Western Ghats and Andaman Nicobar Islands contain tropical rainforests

Deltaic regions have tropical forests and mangroves

Desert and semi-desert areas of Rajasthan feature cacti, bushes, and thorny vegetation

Vegetation changes from region to region based on **climate** and **soil** variations

Indian forests are classified into **five main types** based on common features such as predominant vegetation type and climatic regions.

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TROPICAL EVERGREEN AND SEMI-EVERGREEN FORESTS

**Location and Climate:**

Found on western slopes of Western Ghats, northeastern hills, and Andaman Nicobar Islands

Thrive in **warm and humid areas** with annual precipitation **exceeding 200 cm**

Mean annual temperature **above 22°C**

**Characteristics of Tropical Evergreen Forests:**

**Well-stratified structure** with distinct layers

Ground layer covered with **shrubs and creepers**

Short structured trees followed by tall varieties reaching **60 m or above**

**No definite time** for leaves to shed, flowering, or fruition

Appear **green throughout the year** (evergreen character)

High biodiversity with continuous growth and regeneration

**Main Tree Species:**

**Rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony** (economically important hardwoods)

Dense canopy prevents sunlight from reaching ground level

Rich understory vegetation

**Semi-Evergreen Forests:**

Found in **less rainy areas** within evergreen forest regions

**Mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees**

**Undergrowing climbers** provide evergreen character throughout the year

Main species: **white cedar, hollock, kail**

Transitional forests between evergreen and deciduous types

**Historical Exploitation (British Period):**

Large-scale commercial exploitation began during British rule

Structure of forests was altered for economic purposes

Oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon replaced by **pine (chir)** for railway construction

Forests cleared for **tea, rubber, and coffee plantations**

Timber used for construction due to heat insulation properties

**Protective use replaced by commercial use**, causing significant damage

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TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS

**Alternative Name:** Also called **monsoon forests** because they depend on monsoon rainfall.

**Distribution and Rainfall:**

**Most widespread forests in India**, covering vast areas

Spread over regions receiving **70-200 cm annual rainfall**

Further divided into **moist deciduous** and **dry deciduous** based on water availability

MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS

**Location:**

Regions receiving **100-200 cm rainfall**

Found in **northeastern states** along Himalayan foothills

**Eastern slopes of Western Ghats**

**Odisha state**

**Characteristics:**

Trees shed leaves seasonally but retain leafy appearance due to staggered leaf-shedding

Denser vegetation than dry deciduous

High moisture content in soil supports rich biodiversity

**Important Tree Species:**

**Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, sandalwood**

Teak is highly valued timber tree with commercial significance

Sal provides excellent timber and other forest products

DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS

**Rainfall and Distribution:**

Rainfall between **70-100 cm**

Cover vast areas across country

Found in **rainier areas of Peninsular plateau** and **plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar**

**Transitional Characteristics:**

**Wetter margins transition to moist deciduous forests**

**Drier margins transition to thorn forests**

Acts as ecological bridge between moist and arid regions

**Landscape and Seasonal Changes:**

**Parkland landscape** with open stretches in higher rainfall regions

Teak and other trees interspersed with **grass patches**

As dry season begins, trees **shed leaves completely**

Forest appears like **vast grassland with naked trees** (deciduous nature)

Complete transformation from leafy to barren appearance

**Important Tree Species:**

**Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood**

Tendu leaves used for bidi production

Varied species based on specific rainfall zones

**Special Regional Notes:**

**Western and southern Rajasthan:** Vegetation cover very scanty due to low rainfall and overgrazing

Represents transition zone toward desert and arid conditions

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TROPICAL THORN FORESTS

**Rainfall and Climate:**

Occur in areas receiving **less than 50 cm annual rainfall**

Semi-arid regions with severe water stress

**Dry climate** limits vegetation density and diversity

**Geographical Distribution:**

**Southwest Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh**

Cover large areas of northwestern and western India

Primarily on **rain shadow** sides of mountain ranges

**Vegetation Characteristics:**

**Plants remain leafless for most of the year**

Give expression of **scrub vegetation**

**Variety of grasses and shrubs** adapted to drought conditions

Low canopy cover with sparse distribution

Adaptations include thick bark, small leaves, deep root systems

**Important Species:**

**Babool, ber, wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas**

Neem used for medicinal and agricultural purposes

Khejri provides fodder in arid regions

**Understory Vegetation:**

**Tussocky grass** grows up to **2 m height** as undergrowth

Bunch grasses adapted to arid conditions

Limited herbaceous layer

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MONTANE FORESTS

**Definition and Basis for Classification:**

Forests found in mountainous areas

**Temperature decreases with increasing altitude**, causing **corresponding change in vegetation**

Classified into **two types**: northern mountain forests and southern mountain forests

HIMALAYAN (NORTHERN MOUNTAIN) FORESTS

**Vegetation Succession with Altitude:**

The Himalayas display **distinct vegetation zones** based on altitude and temperature changes, demonstrating a progression from tropical to Alpine tundra vegetation.

**Foothills (0-1,000 m):**

**Deciduous forests** dominate

Transition zone from plains to mountains

**Wet Temperate Forests (1,000-2,000 m):**

Evergreen broad-leaf trees predominant

Found in northeastern India, West Bengal, Uttarakhand

**Oak and chestnut** are common species

**Pine Forest Zone (1,500-1,750 m):**

**Pine forests well-developed** in this altitude range

**Chir Pine** is commercially valuable tree

Used for resin, timber, and other products

Overlaps with temperate broadleaf forests

**Deodar Zone:**

**Deodar** grows mainly in **western Himalayan range**

**Highly valued endemic species** (found nowhere else naturally)

**Durable wood** used in construction activities

Economically significant timber

**Chinar and Walnut Zone:**

Found in **Kashmir region**

Support **famous Kashmir handicrafts** traditions

Valued for cultural and economic importance

**Higher Altitude Forests (2,225-3,048 m):**

**Blue pine and spruce** appear at these elevations

Colder temperatures favor coniferous species

Dense forests transition to open areas

**Alpine Forests and Pastures (3,000-4,000 m):**

**Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch, rhododendrons**

Open woodland structure

**Temperate grasslands** also found interspersed

Used for **transhumance** (seasonal movement) by **tribes: Gujjars, Bakarwals, Bhotiyas, Gaddis**

**Higher Reaches (above 4,000 m):**

**Mosses and lichens** form **tundra vegetation**

Alpine meadows and barren rocky areas

Limited plant growth due to extreme cold

**Aspect Effects:**

**Southern slopes** carry **thicker vegetation cover** due to **higher precipitation**

**North-facing slopes drier**, receiving less precipitation

Solar radiation differences create microclimate variations

SOUTHERN MOUNTAIN FORESTS

**Location and Characteristics:**

Found in **three distinct areas** of Peninsular India

**Western Ghats, Vindhyas, and Nilgiris**

Located closer to tropics, only **1,500 m above sea level**

**Temperate vs. Subtropical Zones:**

**Higher regions:** Temperate vegetation

**Lower regions:** Subtropical vegetation

**Western Ghats (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka):** Transition from subtropical to temperate

**Sholas:**

**Temperate forests in Nilgiris, Anaimalai, and Palani hills**

Small, isolated montane cloud forests

High endemism (unique species found only here)

Important for water conservation

**Important Tree Species:**

**Magnolia, laurel, cinchona, wattle**

High economic value for spices and medicinal products

Many species endemic to these regions

**Regional Distribution:**

Also found in **Satpura and Maikal ranges**

Represent southern extension of montane forest ecosystems

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LITTORAL AND SWAMP FORESTS

**Definition:**

**Littoral forests** are those found along coasts and in low-lying wetland areas, while **swamp forests** include freshwater and saline wetlands.

**Wetland Resources in India:**

India has **rich variety of wetland habitats**

**About 70% comprises paddy cultivation areas**

**Total wetland area: 3.9 million hectares**

Critical ecosystems for biodiversity and water resource management

**International Protection:**

**Two important sites** protected under **Ramsar Convention** (Convention of Wetlands of International Importance):

**Chilika Lake (Odisha)** - largest brackish water lagoon

**Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur, Rajasthan)** - water-fowl habitat

**Ramsar Convention:** International agreement among UN member states

**Eight Categories of Wetlands in India:**

1. **Deccan Plateau Reservoirs and Southern Coastal Wetlands**

Reservoirs of Deccan Plateau in south

Lagoons and wetlands of southwestern coast

2. **Saline Wetlands**

Vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat

Gulf of Kachchh

3. **Freshwater Lakes and Reservoirs**

From Gujarat eastward through Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

Keoladeo National Park included

4. **Delta Wetlands and Lagoons**

East coast delta wetlands and lagoons

**Chilika Lake** (largest example)

5. **Gangetic Plain Marshes**

Freshwater marshes of Gangetic Plain

Important for migratory birds

6. **Brahmaputra Floodplains and Northeast Marshes**

Floodplains of Brahmaputra

Marshes and swamps in northeast India

Himalayan foothills wetlands

7. **Montane Wetlands**

Lakes and rivers of Kashmir and Ladakh

High altitude water bodies

8. **Island Wetlands**

Mangrove forests of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Other island wetlands

MANGROVE FORESTS

**Location and Formation:**

Grow along **coasts in salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats, and estuaries**

**Halophytic vegetation** (salt-tolerant plants)

**Crisscrossed by creeks** of stagnant water and tidal flows

**Ecological Characteristics:**

Adapt to **saline, anaerobic soil** conditions

**Aerial root systems** (prop roots, pneumatophores) for gas exchange

Slow decomposition due to waterlogged conditions

**Biodiversity:**

Provide **shelter to wide variety of birds**

Breeding grounds for fish and crustaceans

Critical nursery habitat for marine species

Support rich faunal diversity

**Indian Distribution:**

Spread over **4,992 sq. km** (7% of world's mangrove forests)

**Highly developed in Andaman and Nicobar Islands**

**Sunderbans of West Bengal** (largest contiguous mangrove forest in India and world's largest)

Other significant areas:

**Mahanadi delta**

**Godavari delta**

**Krishna delta**

**Conservation Status:**

Being encroached upon by human activities

Require urgent conservation efforts

Loss threatens biodiversity and coastal protection

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FOREST CONSERVATION

**Significance:**

Forests have **intricate interrelationship with life and environment**

Provide **numerous direct and indirect advantages** to economy and society

Essential for **survival and prosperity of humankind**

**Development of Forest Policy:**

**1952:** Government of India adopted first national forest conservation policy

**1988:** Forest policy further modified with comprehensive reforms

Based on principle of **sustainable forest management**

**Objectives of 1988 Forest Policy:**

1. **Forest Cover:** Bring **33% of geographical area under forest cover** (currently much lower)

2. **Environmental Stability:** Maintain environmental stability and **restore forests where ecological balance disturbed**

3. **Conservation of Heritage:** Conserve natural heritage, **biological diversity, and genetic pool** of country

4. **Prevent Degradation:**

Check **soil erosion**

Check **extension of desert lands**

Reduce **floods and droughts**

5. **Forest Expansion:** Increase forest cover through **social forestry and afforestation** on degraded lands

6. **Productivity:** Increase productivity to make **timber, fuel, fodder, and food** available to rural population dependent on forests

7. **People's Movement:** Create **massive peoples movement** involving women to:

Encourage tree planting

Stop tree felling

Reduce pressure on existing forests

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORESTS AND TRIBAL COMMUNITIES

**Role of Forests in Tribal Life:**

Forest is **home, livelihood, and very existence** for vast tribal population

Provides **food, fruits, edible leaves, honey, nourishing roots, wild game**

Supplies **materials for house construction** and **items for practicing arts**

**Source of sustenance and livelihood** for tribal communities

**Key Relationship:**

**Tribal communities traditionally live in harmony with nature** and protect forests

Age-old tribal knowledge regarding forestry valuable for forest development

Rather than treating tribals as **minor forest produce collectors**, they should be:

Made **growers of minor forest produce**

Encouraged to **participate in conservation**

Involved in forest management decisions

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SOCIAL FORESTRY

**Definition:**

Social forestry means **management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands** with purpose of helping environmental, social, and rural development.

**Classification (National Commission on Agriculture, 1976):**

Social forestry divided into **three categories**: Urban forestry, Rural forestry, and Farm forestry.

URBAN FORESTRY

**Definition and Scope:**

Raising and management of trees on **public and privately-owned lands** in and around urban centers

Focuses on urban green spaces

**Components:**

**Green belts** around cities

**Parks** and recreational areas

**Roadside avenues** and highway plantations

**Industrial and commercial green belts**

Campus greening

**Benefits:**

Improves air quality

Provides recreational spaces

Enhances aesthetic value

Reduces urban heat island effect

Improves quality of life

RURAL FORESTRY

**Components:**

Rural forestry promotes **two major approaches**: agro-forestry and community-forestry.

**Agro-forestry:**

Raising **trees and agriculture crops on same land** (inclusive of waste patches)

**Combines forestry with agriculture**

Enables **simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel, timber, and fruit**

Maximizes land productivity

Provides diversified income sources

Examples: intercropping with fruit trees, timber species mixed with crops

**Community Forestry:**

Raising trees on **public or community land**

Implemented on:

**Village pastures**

**Temple land**

**Roadsides**

**Canal banks**

**Railway line strips**

**School grounds**

**Objectives:**

Provides **benefits to community as whole**

Gives **landless classes access to tree benefits**

Creates **community-based forest management**

Empowers people in forest conservation

FARM FORESTRY

**Definition:**

Process under which **farmers grow trees for commercial and non-commercial purposes** on farm lands.

**Implementation:**

Forest departments distribute **tree seedlings free of cost** to small and medium farmers

Encourages voluntary participation

**Land Available for Farm Forestry:**

**Margins of agricultural fields**

**Grasslands and pastures**

**Land around homes and cow sheds**

Unutilized land patches

**Benefits:**

Diversifies farm income

Provides timber and fuel for household use

Improves soil fertility

Creates windbreaks and shelterbelts

Offers fodder for livestock

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WILDLIFE

**Significance:**

**Wildlife of India is great natural heritage**

Estimated **4-5% of all known plant and animal species** on Earth found in India

Remarkable diversity of life forms due to **great diversity of ecosystems**

**Reasons for Species Diversity:**

Great diversity of ecosystems preserved and supported through ages

Varied climates, topography, and vegetation zones

Multiple biotic habitats

**Current Status:**

Over years, habitat disturbed by human activities

Numbers of wildlife **dwindled significantly**

**Certain species at brink of extinction**

REASONS FOR WILDLIFE DECLINE

**(i) Industrial and Technological Advancement:**

Rapid increase in **exploitation of forest resources**

Mining, quarrying, and construction activities

Industrial pollution

**( ii) Land Conversion:**

More lands **cleared for agriculture**

**Human settlements** expanding

**Road construction** fragmenting habitats

**Mining activities** destroying ecosystems

**Reservoir construction** submerging natural habitats

**(iii) Pressure from Local Communities:**

**Lopping for fodder** damages tree canopy

**Fuelwood collection** reduces forest density

**Removal of small timber** for local use

Over-extraction of forest resources

**(iv) Grazing Impact:**

**Domestic cattle grazing** causes adverse effects

Overgrazing prevents forest regeneration

Damages understory vegetation

Reduces habitat quality

**(v) Hunting and Poaching:**

Historically, **hunting taken as sport by elite**

**Hundreds of wild animals killed** in single hunts

Now **commercial poaching rampant**

Threatens endangered species

**(vi) Forest Fires:**

**Incidence of forest fires** increases

Destroys habitat and food sources

Kills wildlife directly

Causes fragmentation

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WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN INDIA

**Historical Tradition:**

Protection of wildlife has **long tradition in India**

**Panchtantra and Jungle Books** relate love for wildlife

Stories have **profound impact on young minds**

Cultural heritage emphasizes wildlife protection

**Legal Framework (1972 Wildlife Act):**

**Comprehensive Wildlife Act enacted in 1972**

Provides **main legal framework** for conservation and protection

**Two Main Objectives:**

1. **Species Protection:** Provide protection to **endangered species** listed in Act's schedules

2. **Area Conservation:** Provide legal support to **conservation areas** classified as:

National Parks

Wildlife Sanctuaries

Closed areas (reserved forests)

**Amendments (1991):**

Comprehensive amendments made in 1991

**Punishments made more stringent**

Provisions for **protection of specified plant species**

Enhanced **conservation of endangered animal species**

Strengthened enforcement mechanisms

**Current Status:**

**107 National Parks** in India

**573 Wildlife Sanctuaries** across country

Distributed across all states and union territories

**Conservation Approach:**

Wildlife conservation has **very large ambit**

**Unbounded potential for well-being of humankind**

Can be achieved **only when every individual understands significance** and contributes

Emphasis on **community participation** and awareness

INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION

**UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Programme:**

Government of India collaborates with **UNESCO** for effective flora and fauna conservation

Part of global conservation network

Emphasis on linking **conservation with sustainable development**

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BIOSPHERE RESERVES

**Definition:**

A **Biosphere Reserve** is a unique and representative ecosystem designated for conservation of biodiversity while promoting sustainable use and development.

**Purpose and Structure:**

Protects representative ecosystems

Balances conservation with human development

Supports scientific research

Promotes education and environmental awareness

**Three Zones in Biosphere Reserve:**

As shown in objectives diagram:

**Core Zone:** Strictly protected area with no human activities

**Buffer Zone:** Allows research and education

**Transition Zone:** Permits local communities' sustainable use

**Number and Distribution in India:**

**18 Biosphere Reserves** established across India

Distributed in different states representing various ecosystems

Cover diverse habitats from tropical to alpine

**List of Major Biosphere Reserves (Table 5.1):**

1. **Nilgiri** (1986) - Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka (temperate forests)

2. **Nanda Devi** (1988) - Uttarakhand (Himalayan alpine meadows)

3. **Nokrek** (1988) - Meghalaya (tropical forests)

4. **Manas** (1989) - Assam (alluvial grasslands and tropical forests)

5. **Sunderban** (1989) - West Bengal (mangrove forests, tiger habitat)

6. **Gulf of Mannar** (1989) - Tamil Nadu (coral reefs and marine ecosystem)

7. **Great Nicobar** (1989) - Andaman and Nicobar Islands (tropical forests)

8. **Similipal** (1994) - Odisha (dry deciduous and sal forests)

9. **Dibru-Saikhowa** (1997) - Assam (riverine vegetation)

10. **Dehang Debang** (1998) - Arunachal Pradesh (Alpine and temperate)

11. **Pachmarhi** (1999) - Madhya Pradesh (dry deciduous forests)

12. **Khangchendzonga** (2000) - Sikkim (Alpine meadows and forests)

13. **Agasthyamalai** (2001) - Tamil Nadu, Kerala (Western Ghats)

14. **Achanakmar-Amarkantak** (2005) - Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh

15. **Kachchh** (2008) - Gujarat (salt marshes and grasslands)

16. **Cold Desert** (2009) - Himachal Pradesh (high altitude desert)

17. **Seshachalam** (2010) - Andhra Pradesh (Eastern Ghats)

18. **Panna** (2011) - Madhya Pradesh (dry deciduous forests)

**UNESCO World Network:**

Several reserves marked with bold letters included in **UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves**

Represents recognition of international significance

OBJECTIVES OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES

As shown in Figure 5.9, main objectives include:

**Conservation:** Preserve biodiversity and representative ecosystems

**Research:** Support scientific studies on biodiversity

**Education:** Raise awareness about environmental conservation

**Sustainable Development:** Promote livelihood for local communities

**Monitoring:** Track environmental changes and conservation effectiveness

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SPECIAL WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SCHEMES

PROJECT TIGER (1973)

**Launch Date and Background:**

Launched in **1973**

Responds to severe tiger population decline

Integrated approach combining habitat protection and species conservation

**Main Objective:**

**Ensure maintenance of viable tiger population** in India

Preserve population for **scientific, aesthetic, cultural, and ecological values**

**Preserve areas of biological importance** as natural heritage

Benefit, education, and enjoyment of people

**Implementation and Expansion:**

Initial Phase (1973):

Launched in **9 tiger reserves**

Covered area of **16,339 sq. km**

Current Status:

**58 tiger reserves** across country

Encompass **84,487 sq. km of core tiger habitats**

Distributed in **18 states**

Represents significant expansion and success

**Population Recovery:**

Tiger population in 2006: **1,411 tigers**

Tiger population in 2023: **3,682 tigers**

Represents **increase of more than 75%** in 17 years

India holds **more than 75% of global tiger population**

Demonstrates effectiveness of conservation program

**Key Success Factors:**

Habitat protection and restoration

Anti-poaching measures

Community involvement

International cooperation

PROJECT ELEPHANT (1992)

**Launch and Objectives:**

Launched in **1992**

Aimed at assisting **states having free-ranging elephant populations**

Ensure **long-term survival of viable elephant populations** in natural habitats

**Implementation:**

Being implemented in **18 states**

Focuses on elephant corridors and habitat connectivity

Involves community participation in conservation

**Scope:**

Protects Asian elephant populations

Ensures genetic diversity

Promotes human-elephant coexistence

Supports traditional elephant habitats

OTHER CONSERVATION PROJECTS

**Crocodile Breeding Project:**

Launched to conserve crocodile species

Focuses on breeding and habitat restoration

Addresses crocodile population decline

**Project Hangul:**

Focuses on Hangul deer (Kashmir stag)

Endemic species found only in Kashmir

Critically endangered status

**Himalayan Musk Deer Conservation:**

Addresses musk deer population decline

Found in high altitude regions

Hunted for musk, making it critically endangered

Involves habitat protection and breeding programs

All projects launched by **Government of India** demonstrate **comprehensive wildlife conservation approach** combining legal protection, habitat management, breeding programs, and community participation.