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Natural Vegetation

NCERT Class 11 · Geography Based on NCERT Class 11 Geography textbook · Free CBSE study kit

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Chapter Notes

Overview
This chapter explores the concept of natural vegetation in India, its classification, and the factors influencing its distribution. It exists in the syllabus to help students understand the intricate relationship between climate, soil, and plant communities, and the importance of forest and wildlife conservation. The one big idea a student must walk away with is that India's diverse natural vegetation is a reflection of its varied climatic and soil conditions, and its conservation is vital for ecological balance and human survival.
Key Concepts (18)
Natural Vegetation
A plant community that has been left undisturbed over a long time, so as to allow its individual species to adjust themselves to climate and soil conditions as fully as possible.
e.g. A forest that has grown naturally without human intervention, such as the tropical rainforests of the Western Ghats.
Tropical Evergreen Forests
Forests found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22°C; they are well stratified, appear green all year round, and have no definite time for shedding leaves.
e.g. Forests on the western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of northeastern India, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Semi Evergreen Forests
Forests found in the less rainy parts of tropical evergreen regions, having a mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees, with undergrowing climbers providing an evergreen character.
e.g. Forests in the less rainy parts of the Western Ghats and northeastern region.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
The most widespread forests in India, also called monsoon forests, spread over regions receiving rainfall between 70-200 cm; further divided into moist deciduous and dry deciduous.
e.g. Teak, sal, shisham, mahua, and sandalwood are found in these forests.
Moist Deciduous Forests
A subtype of tropical deciduous forests found in regions recording rainfall between 100-200 cm, more pronounced in northeastern states, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, and Odisha.
e.g. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood.
Dry Deciduous Forests
A subtype of tropical deciduous forests covering vast areas where rainfall ranges between 70-100 cm, found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
e.g. Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, and axlewood are common trees.
Tropical Thorn Forests
Forests occurring in areas receiving rainfall less than 50 cm, consisting of a variety of grasses and shrubs, with plants remaining leafless for most of the year, giving an expression of scrub vegetation.
e.g. Babool, ber, wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, and palas are important species.
Montane Forests
Forests in mountainous areas where a decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to a corresponding change in natural vegetation; classified into northern mountain forests and southern mountain forests.
e.g. The Himalayan ranges show a succession from tropical to tundra vegetation with altitude.
Littoral and Swamp Forests
Forests found along coasts, in salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats, and estuaries, consisting of salt-tolerant species; mangroves are a key type.
e.g. Mangrove forests in the Sunderbans of West Bengal and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Mangroves
Salt-tolerant species of plants that grow along coasts in salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats, and estuaries, providing shelter to a wide variety of birds.
e.g. The Sunderbans in West Bengal and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands have highly developed mangrove forests.
Social Forestry
The management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping in environmental, social, and rural development; classified into urban forestry, rural forestry, and farm forestry.
e.g. Raising trees on village pasture land or along railway lines under community forestry.
Agro-forestry
The raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of waste patches, combining forestry with agriculture for simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel, timber, and fruit.
e.g. Growing trees like poplar along with wheat on the same field.
Community Forestry
The raising of trees on public or community land such as village pasture, temple land, roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, and schools, aiming to provide benefits to the community as a whole.
e.g. Planting trees on common village land for fuelwood and fodder for all villagers.
Farm Forestry
The process under which farmers grow trees for commercial and non-commercial purposes on their farm lands.
e.g. A farmer planting eucalyptus trees on the margins of his agricultural field for timber.
Biosphere Reserve
A unique and representative ecosystem of terrestrial and coastal areas which are internationally recognised within the framework of UNESCO's Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme, aiming at conservation, development, and logistic support.
e.g. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, which includes parts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.
Project Tiger
A scheme launched in 1973 to ensure maintenance of a viable population of tigers in India for scientific, aesthetic, cultural, and ecological values, and to preserve areas of biological importance as natural heritage.
e.g. Initially launched in nine tiger reserves, now increased to 58 tiger reserves covering 84,487 sq km.
Project Elephant
A project launched in 1992 to assist states having free-ranging populations of wild elephants, aimed at ensuring long-term survival of identified viable populations in their natural habitat.
e.g. Implemented in 18 states to protect elephant habitats.
Wildlife Act (1972)
A comprehensive Act enacted in 1972 providing the main legal framework for conservation and protection of wildlife in India, with objectives to protect endangered species and provide legal support to conservation areas like national parks and sanctuaries.
e.g. The Act was amended in 1991 to make punishments more stringent and protect specified plant species.
How It Works
Classification of Indian Forests
  1. Step 1: Identify predominant vegetation type and climatic regions.
  2. Step 2: Group forests into five categories: Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen, Tropical Deciduous, Tropical Thorn, Montane, and Littoral and Swamp.
  3. Step 3: Further subdivide based on rainfall and altitude where applicable (e.g., moist vs dry deciduous, northern vs southern mountain forests).
💡 Students often forget that semi-evergreen forests are a mix of evergreen and moist deciduous trees, not a separate category entirely.
Forest Conservation Policy Implementation
  1. Step 1: Government adopts a forest policy (1952, modified in 1988) aiming to bring 33% of geographical area under forest cover.
  2. Step 2: Emphasise sustainable forest management to conserve and expand forest reserves while meeting local needs.
  3. Step 3: Initiate social forestry, including urban, rural, and farm forestry, to increase forest cover and reduce pressure on existing forests.
  4. Step 4: Create a massive people's movement involving women to encourage tree planting and stop felling.
💡 The target of 33% forest cover is a frequently asked numerical value in exams.
Wildlife Conservation Measures
  1. Step 1: Enact the Wildlife Act in 1972 to provide legal framework for protecting endangered species and conservation areas.
  2. Step 2: Establish national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and closed areas under the Act.
  3. Step 3: Launch specific projects like Project Tiger (1973) and Project Elephant (1992) for flagship species.
  4. Step 4: Designate Biosphere Reserves under UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Programme for integrated conservation.
  5. Step 5: Implement other projects like Crocodile Breeding Project and Project Hangul.
💡 Students often confuse the year of Project Tiger (1973) with the Wildlife Act (1972).
Altitudinal Zonation of Vegetation in the Himalayas
  1. Step 1: Foothills (up to 1,000 m) — Deciduous forests.
  2. Step 2: 1,000-2,000 m — Wet temperate forests with evergreen broadleaf trees like oak and chestnut; pine forests (Chir Pine) develop between 1,500-1,750 m.
  3. Step 3: 2,225-3,048 m — Blue pine and spruce appear; temperate grasslands found.
  4. Step 4: 3,000-4,000 m — Alpine forests and pastures with silver firs, junipers, pines, birch, and rhododendrons.
  5. Step 5: Above 4,000 m — Tundra vegetation with mosses and lichens.
💡 The southern slopes of the Himalayas have thicker vegetation due to higher precipitation compared to drier north-facing slopes.
Exam Traps — Don't Make These Mistakes
⚠ Confusing 'Natural Vegetation' with 'Planted Vegetation'
✗ Natural vegetation includes all plants, including those planted in gardens and orchards.
→ Natural vegetation refers specifically to plant communities left undisturbed over a long time, allowing species to adjust to climate and soil conditions naturally, without human supervision.
✓ Natural vegetation is a plant community that has been left undisturbed over a long time, so as to allow its individual species to adjust themselves to climate and soil conditions as fully as possible.
⚠ Mixing up 'Tropical Evergreen' and 'Tropical Deciduous' Forests
✗ Tropical evergreen forests shed their leaves in the dry season.
→ Tropical evergreen forests have no definite time for shedding leaves, flowering, and fruition, and appear green all year round. Deciduous forests shed their leaves during the dry season.
✓ Tropical evergreen forests appear green all year round as there is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves, while tropical deciduous forests shed their leaves completely during the dry season.
⚠ Incorrect Rainfall Ranges for Forest Types
✗ Tropical deciduous forests receive rainfall between 100-200 cm.
→ Tropical deciduous forests spread over regions receiving rainfall between 70-200 cm. The moist deciduous subtype receives 100-200 cm, but the overall category includes dry deciduous (70-100 cm).
✓ Tropical deciduous forests are found in regions with rainfall between 70-200 cm, further divided into moist deciduous (100-200 cm) and dry deciduous (70-100 cm).
⚠ Confusing 'Biosphere Reserve' with 'National Park' or 'Wildlife Sanctuary'
✗ A biosphere reserve is the same as a national park.
→ A biosphere reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem recognised internationally under UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Programme, aiming at conservation, development, and logistic support. National parks and sanctuaries are legal categories under the Wildlife Act, with stricter protection.
✓ A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem of terrestrial and coastal areas internationally recognised within the framework of UNESCO's Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme, aiming at conservation, development, and logistic support.
⚠ Mistaking 'Social Forestry' for 'Farm Forestry'
✗ Social forestry is only about farmers growing trees on their land.
→ Social forestry is broader, including urban forestry, rural forestry (agro-forestry and community forestry), and farm forestry. Farm forestry is just one component where farmers grow trees on their farm lands.
✓ Social forestry includes urban forestry, rural forestry (agro-forestry and community forestry), and farm forestry. Farm forestry specifically refers to farmers growing trees for commercial and non-commercial purposes on their farm lands.
Compare & Contrast
Leaf shedding pattern
Tropical Evergreen Forests
Tropical Deciduous Forests
Tropical evergreen forests have no definite time for shedding leaves and appear green all year round, while tropical deciduous forests shed their leaves completely during the dry season.
Rainfall requirement
Moist Deciduous Forests
Dry Deciduous Forests
Moist deciduous forests occur in regions with rainfall between 100-200 cm, while dry deciduous forests occur in regions with rainfall between 70-100 cm.
Altitudinal vegetation zones
Northern Mountain Forests (Himalayas)
Southern Mountain Forests (Peninsular India)
Northern mountain forests show a succession from tropical to tundra vegetation with increasing altitude, while southern mountain forests (e.g., Western Ghats, Nilgiris) have temperate vegetation in higher regions and subtropical in lower regions, with distinct Shola forests in the Nilgiris.
Exam Focus
Marks pattern: 2 MCQs (1 mark each), 1 SA (3 marks) on forest types or conservation, 1 LA (5 marks) on classification or conservation measures
Most asked: Classification of Indian forests and their characteristics · Rainfall and temperature conditions for each forest type · Forest conservation policies and social forestry · Wildlife conservation measures including Project Tiger and Project Elephant · Biosphere Reserves and their objectives
Don't skip: Describe the different types of forests in India with their climatic conditions and distribution.; Explain the steps taken by the Government of India for forest and wildlife conservation.; Differentiate between tropical evergreen and tropical deciduous forests.
One-Line Revision (read aloud before the exam)
  1. Natural vegetation is a plant community left undisturbed over a long time to adjust to climate and soil conditions.
  2. Tropical evergreen forests require over 200 cm rainfall and mean annual temperature above 22°C.
  3. Tropical deciduous forests are the most widespread in India, also called monsoon forests, with rainfall between 70-200 cm.
  4. Tropical thorn forests occur in areas with less than 50 cm rainfall and have plants leafless for most of the year.
  5. Montane forests in the Himalayas show a succession from tropical to tundra vegetation with increasing altitude.
  6. Mangroves are salt-tolerant plants growing along coasts, highly developed in the Sunderbans and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
  7. The Forest Policy of 1988 aims to bring 33% of India's geographical area under forest cover.
  8. Social forestry includes urban, rural (agro-forestry and community forestry), and farm forestry.
  9. The Wildlife Act of 1972 provides the main legal framework for wildlife conservation in India.
  10. Project Tiger was launched in 1973 to maintain a viable population of tigers in India.
  11. Project Elephant was launched in 1992 to ensure long-term survival of wild elephants in their natural habitat.
  12. A Biosphere Reserve is a unique ecosystem recognised under UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Programme.
  13. India has 18 Biosphere Reserves, of which 12 are recognised by UNESCO on the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
  14. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve was the first to be designated in India in 1986.
  15. Chilika Lake and Keoladeo National Park are protected as waterfowl habitats under the Ramsar Convention.

MCQs — 10 Questions with Answers

Q1. Tropical evergreen forests in India are primarily found in areas with annual rainfall above:

  • A. 50 cm
  • B. 100 cm
  • C. 200 cm ✓
  • D. 150 cm

Answer: C — Tropical evergreen forests require very high precipitation (over 200 cm annually) and mean temperature above 22°C to sustain year-round green vegetation.

Q2. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic feature of tropical deciduous forests?

  • A. Trees shed leaves completely during dry season
  • B. Also called monsoon forests
  • C. Receive rainfall between 70-200 cm annually
  • D. Trees remain green throughout the year ✓

Answer: D — Tropical deciduous forests are explicitly characterized by complete leaf shedding in the dry season, making trees appear naked; they do not remain green year-round like evergreen forests.

Q3. The montane forests of the Himalayas show a transition from deciduous at foothills to alpine vegetation at higher altitudes. At what altitude range do pine forests develop in this sequence?

  • A. 500-1000 m
  • B. 1500-1750 m ✓
  • C. 2000-2500 m
  • D. 3000-4000 m

Answer: B — Pine forests, particularly Chir Pine, develop between 1500-1750 m altitude in the Himalayan range after the wet temperate zone (1000-2000 m).

Q4. Study the following statements about tropical thorn forests: Assertion (A): Tropical thorn forests receive less than 50 cm annual rainfall. Reason (R): In these forests, plants remain leafless for most of the year to reduce water loss. Which is correct?

  • A. Both A and R are correct; R is the correct explanation of A ✓
  • B. Both A and R are correct; R is not the correct explanation of A
  • C. A is correct but R is incorrect
  • D. Both A and R are incorrect

Answer: A — Both statements are true: thorn forests do occur in areas with <50 cm rainfall, and plants do shed leaves to conserve water in arid conditions, with R explaining why A occurs.

Q5. The British colonial administration significantly altered the forest composition of India. Which of the following best explains why oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced by pine forests?

  • A. Pine was more suitable to the local climate than oak
  • B. Oak trees were completely destroyed by disease
  • C. Pine timber was needed for railway construction, reflecting commercial rather than protective forest use ✓
  • D. The British wanted to increase biodiversity in these regions

Answer: C — The text explicitly states the British exploited forests commercially; oak forests were replaced by pine specifically because pine was needed for railway lines, demonstrating the shift from protective to economic use.

Q6. If a region in the Himalayan foothills receives 150 cm annual rainfall and has a mean temperature of 20°C, which forest type would most likely be found there?

  • A. Tropical evergreen forest (requires >200 cm rainfall)
  • B. Moist deciduous forest (100-200 cm rainfall range) ✓
  • C. Dry deciduous forest (70-100 cm rainfall range)
  • D. Alpine forest (found above 3000 m altitude)

Answer: B — With 150 cm rainfall falling within the 100-200 cm range and located in foothills, this region matches the conditions for moist deciduous forests found in northeastern states and Himalayan foothills.

Q7. The southern slopes of the Himalayan range carry thicker vegetation cover than the northern slopes. This is because:

  • A. Southern slopes receive higher precipitation than north-facing slopes ✓
  • B. Southern slopes have higher altitude than northern slopes
  • C. The soil on southern slopes is more fertile
  • D. Southern slopes have warmer temperatures that promote faster growth

Answer: A — The text states that southern Himalayan slopes carry thicker vegetation due to relatively higher precipitation than drier north-facing slopes, demonstrating moisture's control over vegetation density.

Q8. Which of the following trees grows between 1500-1750 m in the western Himalayan range and is valued as a highly durable wood for construction?

  • A. Chir Pine
  • B. Deodar ✓
  • C. Blue Pine
  • D. Spruce

Answer: B — Deodar is explicitly described as a highly valued endemic species found in the western part of Himalayan range, with durable wood mainly used in construction activities.

Q9. Based on the relationship between rainfall and vegetation type in India, if a region received 45 cm annual rainfall, which vegetation type would NOT be found there?

  • A. Thorn forests with babool and ber trees
  • B. Scrub vegetation with low grass coverage
  • C. Moist deciduous forest with teak and sal ✓
  • D. Semi-arid bushes and thorny vegetation

Answer: C — With 45 cm rainfall falling below the 70 cm minimum for deciduous forests, moist deciduous forests (requiring 100-200 cm) cannot develop; instead, thorn forests and semi-arid scrub would occur.

Q10. HOTS: The Sholas forests of the Nilgiris and the temperate forests of the western Himalayas both develop at high altitudes but differ significantly in their tree composition. Which factor best explains this difference?

  • A. Latitude: Sholas are closer to the equator while Himalayan forests are at higher latitudes ✓
  • B. Altitude above sea level: Nilgiris reach only 1500 m while Himalayas extend to 4000+ m
  • C. Human activities have removed endemic species from the Sholas more than Himalayan forests
  • D. The Himalayas receive more rainfall than the Western Ghats

Answer: A — Although both are mountain forests, Sholas are closer to the tropics (lower latitudes) and only reach 1500 m, developing subtropical-temperate vegetation, while Himalayan forests at higher latitudes and greater altitudes (up to 4000+ m) show true temperate to alpine zones.

Flashcards

What is natural vegetation and how does it differ from planted vegetation?

Natural vegetation is a plant community left undisturbed over a long time to adjust fully to climate and soil, while planted vegetation is maintained under human supervision.

Which regions of India have tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests?

Western Ghats slopes, northeastern hills, and Andaman-Nicobar Islands where annual rainfall exceeds 200 cm and mean temperature is above 22°C.

What is the rainfall range for tropical deciduous forests in India?

Tropical deciduous forests occur where annual rainfall ranges between 70-200 cm, and are further divided into moist (100-200 cm) and dry (70-100 cm) types.

Name three tree species commonly found in moist deciduous forests.

Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood are main species of moist deciduous forests.

In what rainfall conditions do tropical thorn forests develop?

Tropical thorn forests occur in areas receiving less than 50 cm annual rainfall, found in semi-arid regions of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.

What is the altitude range for pine forests in the Himalayas?

Pine forests, particularly Chir Pine, develop between 1500-1750 m altitude in the Himalayan ranges.

Define the term 'Sholas' in the context of mountain forests.

Sholas are temperate forests found in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai, and Palani hills of the Western Ghats at altitudes up to 1500 m.

What change did the British make to Indian forest structure and why?

British replaced oak forests with pine (Chir) for railway lines and cleared forests for tea, rubber, and coffee plantations, replacing protective forest use with commercial exploitation.

Which tree species is valued for Kashmir handicrafts and found in montane forests?

Chinar and walnut trees grow in the Kashmir region of the Himalayas and sustain the famous Kashmir handicraft tradition.

What percentage of India's wetlands comprises paddy cultivation areas?

Approximately 70 per cent of India's wetlands comprise areas under paddy cultivation, with total wetland area of 3.9 million hectares.

Important Board Questions

Define natural vegetation. How does it differ from planted vegetation? [2 marks]

State that natural vegetation is undisturbed over long time allowing full adjustment to climate and soil; contrast with planted vegetation maintained under human supervision using one example (e.g., mango orchard vs. forest).

Explain the characteristics and distribution of tropical deciduous forests in India with reference to their rainfall requirements and main tree species. [5 marks]

Divide into moist (100-200 cm) and dry (70-100 cm) types; describe their locations (NE foothills, peninsula); mention tree species (teak, sal for moist; tendu, palas for dry); explain complete leaf shedding in dry season making them appear as grasslands.

Analyze how altitude zonation creates distinct forest types in the Himalayan range from foothills to alpine zones. Include at least three vegetation zones in your answer and explain the factors responsible for this pattern. [6 marks]

Trace sequence: deciduous foothills → wet temperate (1000-2000m) → pine forests (1500-1750m) → blue pine/spruce (2225-3048m) → alpine meadows (3000-4000m); explain decreasing temperature with altitude as primary control; mention transhumance use by tribes; note southern slopes carry thicker vegetation due to higher precipitation than north-facing slopes.

Assertion-Reason Questions for Natural Vegetation

Q1. Assertion (A):

Tropical deciduous forests are the most widespread forests in India and are also called monsoon forests.

Reason (R):

These forests receive rainfall between 70-200 cm annually and shed their leaves during the dry season due to monsoon precipitation patterns.

Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A — Both the assertion and reason are true, and the reason correctly explains why deciduous forests are called monsoon forests—their leaf-shedding pattern directly corresponds to the monsoon-driven rainfall seasonality that characterizes these regions.

Q2. Assertion (A):

Tropical evergreen forests appear green all year round.

Reason (R):

These forests have no definite time for trees to shed their leaves, flowering, and fruition due to consistent warm and humid conditions.

Answer: B — Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A — Both statements are true. Evergreen forests do appear green year-round, and the consistent warm, humid climate with abundant precipitation does support continuous growth. However, the reason—continuous growth without dormancy—is not the direct cause of their appearance; rather, it's an adaptation to the constant availability of water and warmth. The appearance results from overlapping phenophases among multiple species.

Q3. Assertion (A):

Montane forests in the Himalayas show vegetation succession from tropical to tundra with increasing altitude.

Reason (R):

Temperature increases with altitude, causing changes in vegetation types at different elevations.

Answer: C — A is true but R is false — The assertion is correct—the Himalayas do display such vegetation succession. However, the reason is false. Temperature decreases (not increases) with altitude, which is the actual cause of vegetation changes. This is a critical misconception to test: students often confuse altitude-temperature relationships.

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Case-Based Questions (CBQ) for Natural Vegetation

Case Study:

A conservation organization is planning to establish protected forest reserves in three different regions of India based on unique vegetation characteristics. Region A receives 250 cm annual rainfall with high humidity, Region B receives 85 cm rainfall with hot, dry summers and a pronounced dry season, and Region C is located in the Himalayan foothills at 1,500 m altitude with cool temperatures. Each region contains distinct plant and animal communities adapted to specific climate and soil conditions that have developed over centuries of undisturbed growth.

Q1. Based on the rainfall data provided, which forest type would be most appropriate to establish as a protected reserve in Region A to preserve its natural vegetation character?

  • A. Tropical deciduous forests
  • B. Tropical thorn forests
  • C. Tropical evergreen forests ✓
  • D. Montane forests

Answer: C

Q2. The conservation team observes that Region B experiences complete leaf-shedding of dominant tree species during the dry season, transforming the landscape into a parkland with scattered naked trees and grass patches. This vegetation pattern is characteristic of which forest type?

  • A. Moist deciduous forests
  • B. Dry deciduous forests ✓
  • C. Tropical thorn forests
  • D. Semi-evergreen forests

Answer: B

Q3. In Region C, the organization identifies trees such as oak, chestnut, and Chir Pine at the current altitude. If they climb higher to 3,500 m, what vegetation types would they expect to find according to the natural succession pattern?

  • A. Teak and sal deciduous forests
  • B. Silver firs, junipers, birch, and rhododendrons ✓
  • C. Babool and ber thorny shrubs
  • D. Mahogany and rosewood evergreen trees

Answer: B

Q4. The organization plans to restrict human activities in these reserves to allow species to adjust to local climate and soil conditions naturally. This approach aligns with which principle of natural vegetation management?

  • A. Promoting commercial forest exploitation for economic gain
  • B. Regularly harvesting timber to maintain forest structure
  • C. Replacing native vegetation with faster-growing plantation species
  • D. Allowing undisturbed growth so species can adjust to environmental conditions ✓

Answer: D

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